Chapter 5Urban Planning Approach

5.1 Introduction

The location, site and situation significantly contribute to growth and function of a settlement. Location and surroundings could have positive and negative impact on settlement development. However, careful planning should be able to use well the advantages that the location of a town provides. Particularly location in the context of waterfront of sea, river and large lakes provides special resources, which can be effectively used for development of the town. Similarly, the town located on the hills provide other special opportunities for development. Any appraisal of the value and importance of a particular site must involve a knowledge of its historical past, evolution and landmarks of change.

The growth of clusters of urban settlements is more frequently found around large metropolises and results in what are sometimes called “city regions”. Often these are made up of small towns and villages, which have been enormously expanded as a result of national policy on dispersal of economic activities away from the metropolises. The small and medium towns in these city regions are related to one another by the functions, which they perform. Site condition in the hilly and mountainous regions may occupy site in: Ridges, Valleys, River terraces, Confluences, Rolling Meadows and in cases linear settlement growth along the major transportation routes or at the entrance to specific hill region.

5.2.1 Location

Location attributes to be considered in a planning exercise:

a) Location in terms of latitude and longitude, population size and area and connectivity with other settlements etc.

b) Nodal significance in the national or regional transport and communication network, power network and industrial development etc.

c) Location in terms of agricultural produce collection and distribution centre, agro-industries linked to local markets, irrigation network, agricultural extension services etc.

d) Status that the settlement in hierarchy in the State or the Region

e) Role and status of the city/ town in the national delivery systems of social services;

f) Relative significance of locations of city/ town in proximity to a Metropolitan/Megapolis:

i. Nodal significance

ii. Presence of high productive economic activities

iii. Presence of large scale market

5.2.2 Site

Site attributes to be studied for planning exercise:

a) Conditions of site: low-lying, swamp, or dry land, ridge, on a riverbank or canal side. Within the town-flat, slopping (in which direction), undulating-gentle slope, moderate slope, steep slope.

b) Value and importance of the site and its historical past, that is, when the nucleus was established.

c) Analyse the factors responsible for determining the site:

i. In alluvial plains

ii. In hilly and mountainous regions

iii. In arid regions

iv. In the areas of territorial ruler ship

v. In the areas around some localised physical resources, mining settlements, manufacturing towns, resort towns

vi. Around large metropolis

d) Climate and its influence on daily life, construction, range of crops and how the city activities have modified the natural climate, particularly in the built-up area.

e) Analysis of climate type, variations in temperature, wind velocity and wind directions in different parts of the city; study of the climate with reference to summer, rainy and winter seasons.

f) Limiting and the favourable factors of site in the spread and growth of the city/town.

5.2.3 Situation

The following to be considered for situation analysis:

a) The endowment of the situation (wider setting) for the subsequent growth in size of the city/town and for the enhancement of its functions

b) The important and interrelated aspects of situation, namely,

i. Physical configuration

ii. Route patterns

iii. The extent of the territory to which the urban functions are related

c) Suggest measures to retard or even overcome the weakening of the original value of the site and situation.

5.2.4 Hinterland

The endowment of the hinterland is another factor on which growth of an urban centre rests. An urban centre, for example, can establish a mutually interacting relationship with its hinterland if the hinterland has a variety and extent of natural resources in terms of both agriculture and economic potentials. A city's growth may be consistent and stable mainly because its economic base is closely linked with that of its hinterland. It is also conceivable that the city can be an instrument not merely for effectively utilising the existing potential of its hinterland but also of increasing the hinterland's potential itself. The development of the regional economy helps the growth of small towns, which in the process become the main service centres for their hinterlands.

Therefore, considerable attention should be given to the delimitation, functionality, social and economic link to a particular urban settlement. The area linked socially and economically to an urban settlement has been given various names, such as “Hinterland”, “Upland”, “Urban Field”, “Sphere of Influence”, “Zones of Influence”, “Tributary Area”, or “Catchment Area”. The immediate hinterland of a large city, which is directly under the influence of the agglomeration, is the ‘peri-urban area’.

5.2.5 Accessibility

Accessibility is the dominant factor influencing the location, growth and functions of urban centres. It is to combine at least three elements: the location of a place within a region (in general, centrally located places are more accessible); the form of the transport system; and accessibility within the area of the activities: access to employment opportunities, access to population, access to educational or health facilities, etc.

$^{1}$ Sustainable Urbanization: Guidelines to Manage Urban Growth, Volume 2: Tools and Guidelines, McIntosh Xaba& Associates.

Urban settlements tend to grow on transport routes only at specific places, particularly at junctions and break-of-bulk points, where one form of the transport is changed for another. Hence settlements whose locations are guided by transport routes are found not only at the end of these routes, but also along them. The number of routes, which come together at a particular point, is important, but the degree to which passengers and goods are interchanged is more important.

The guidelines for the study of accessibility are as under -

Establish the role of:

i. Long-distance regional/inter-regional transportation in determining the locations of the city/town;

ii. Both the long distance as well as local and intra-urban transportation in the growth of size of the city/town;

iii. Inter-urban and intra-urban transportation in affecting urban structure.

iv. Inter-regional easy access by different modes;

v. Good mobility within city/town due to construction of tunnel results in the development of new areas with commercial, industrial and residential activities, which leads to population increase in the entire urban area.

5.2.6 Socio-Economic Profile

City is not alone a characteristic of its physical or locational forms; its population and its characteristics determine the social processes that set the City culture. Socio-economic class-wise distribution of the population is a key indicator of the social parameters in a settlement. In case of existing settlement, the pattern of population on the basis of socio-economic levels can be studied for planning to understand the services and facilities. On the contrary, it is useful for the greenfield sites, where zoning can be proposed based on the income of the settling population class, higher, middle or low. Spatial plan is usually influenced by living and work places of different of population classes.

This principle of Urban Strategic Planning $^{2}$ should in consonance with the income distribution structure of the city region with the urban poor located near public transport nodes/links and specially providing space for the urban poor in master/development plans for living, selling and working - at city, zone and local levels.

Overall, the social indicators allow the planner to understand the city, link it with the city spatial form and its behaviour pattern. In short, unlike the traditional approach to zoning, social parameters can be used for creating zones and its functions. This can directly point at the urban facilities such as bus services, dedicated transportation corridors, facilities of social infrastructure and physical infrastructure.

$^{2}$ Report of the Working Group on Urban Strategic Planning, 12 $^{th}$ Five-year Plan'

5.3.1 Developed Area Average Densities

For the purpose of these guidelines, the densities mentioned in this section are the Gross Population Densities defined as person per unit area (in hectares) for developed area only. The calculation includes population of the settlement on the developed land of the settlement.

Fixation of density norms should be based on carrying capacity analysis focusing on parameters - space per person, access to facilities, available piped water per capita, mobility and safety factors. The task should be settlement specific. However, for overall planning approach density ranges are suggested in Table 5.1.

Source: Revised based on UDPFI Guidelines.

These are suggestive population densities as per the settlement size. However, while planning for compact and TOD development, these densities should be modified to suit the requirement and should be based on carrying capacity analysis. Developed area densities suggested above is useful to calculate total developed area requirement at city level, when the target population for the city is given. When used along with the suggested norms for different land use, area can also be calculated.

5.3.2 Proposed Land use Structure of Urban Centres

The proposed land use structure for urban centres is indicated in Table 5.2:

Source: Revised based on UDPFI Guidelines, 1996

Though urban development increasingly accounts for a large share in the National economy, huge gap between the need of infrastructure services and available resource

still remains unbridged as a major concern. It adversely effects provision of employment, mobility and lifestyle of large sections of city's population. Challenges like environmental sustainability, changing but stressed lifestyle put pressure on mobility and health. In order to reduce pressure on land and response to climate change impact, alternative approaches of city planning and building is the need of the hour.

Such solutions lay in keeping the city compact by mixing uses of land to an optimum level, decreasing trip generation and high population density making mass rapid transit systems technically and economically viable. Aspect to be encouraged by urban planners are walk to work best designed pedestrian safety, protection of natural features and environmentally sensitive areas, along with finding new source of financial resources for city development.

To moderate the environmental impacts of urbanisation, sustainable ways of planning are required. Urban centres by its conventional form play a significant role in mounting urban heat island. Green city modules such as street orientation in lines with sun direction, prevailing wind direction and use of heat repelling material not only help reduce the impact, but also slow down the gas emissions from artificial cooling systems. Further green spaces within the urban set-up ensure cooling effect and better public interaction spaces, apart from psychological supports in reducing human stress levels.

Both compact city and green city approach should help to release land for open space and recreational use purposes, reducing pollution levels, decentralising waste handling, encouraging public transportation and simplifying land use segregation.

To technically meet the demand of the urban centres in making it cost effective and in optimum utilisation of available resources to any of the urban planning approaches, Information Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a solution. Smart city concept facilities better living experience for human kind, declining dependency on contingencies by using ICT enable development of smart communities, providing a communication web that connects buildings, energy and mobility devices such as Electric Vehicles (EV) by using bi-directional information exchange. 3D City Models may be used to facilitate orientation of views in terms of scale and spatial position and planning other urban utilities.

The following sections cover the key benefits of compact city, green city and smart city approaches and its aspects in planning.

Green cities are those where economic growth and development is fostering, that reduce negative environmental externalities, the impact on natural resources and the pressure on ecosystem services. These cities have significant synergies between environmental and economic objectives. A clean or effective production and

consumption of facilities related to movement of people and goods, waste management and recycling, pollution prevention, treatment, energy, abatement, design, construction, maintenance, resource extraction, agriculture, natural resource management and other environmental services, are the prime component of a green city.

5.4.1.1 Key Benefits of Green city

■ Effective Land Use: Green cities promote effective land use and get rid of urban sprawl by encouraging compact mixed-use developments. Higher urban densities are promoted without affecting the quality of life.

- Habitat Prevention and Restoration: These cities aim to prevent damage to the natural landscape, productivity of agricultural land, biodiversity and natural habitat. Such green spaces improve the quality of air and canopy covers reduces noise level.

Efficient Transportation Management: Green city increases opportunities for non-motorised movement, bicycling, pedestrian friendly network, reduction in the number of automobile trips, promoting public transportation and use of vehicles with alternative fuels.

■ Effective Use of Resources: Limits the usage of resources by incorporating efficient systems, like:

- Water Efficiency: Green city includes “R3” (reduce-recycle-reuse) strategies and can save potable water to an extent of 30-40% including water harvesting.

- Energy Efficiency: On-site power generation using various renewable energy technologies and other clean fuels can significantly reduce the load on grid power supply. There can be energy saving to the tune of 20-30%.

- Waste Management: Waste management in Green Cities are well planned which takes into account waste reduction initiatives by planning and implementation of efficient and effective systems for collection, transportation, treatment, recycling and reuse or disposal of municipal solid waste. Also, Waste-to-energy is a key component of green city.

- Other Benefits: Reduced maintenance costs, resource consumption, waste generation along with higher marketability and speedy environmental clearance approvals.

5.4.1.2 Green city Planning Components

5.4.1.3 Redevelopment of brownfield sites

Priority shall be given to redevelopment of contaminated and dense sites, which are environmentally degraded or demographically saturated. Focus should be on green redevelopment of such site, which can improve the overall condition of existing sites. Thus, it is advisable to prefer redevelopment on brownfield sites than fresh development on a greenfield site until absolutely essential. In such a case, brownfield redevelopment makes efficient use of existing infrastructure. The process for the decision and actions is given in the figure below:

7TERI with support of MNRE

Figure 5.1: Way towards Green Redevelopment

Urban sprawl is a resultant of an ever-expanding city jurisdiction due to absence of compact development practices. This has resulted in undesirable extension of urban infrastructure, encroachment of valuable agricultural land, raising cost of development and also increasing carbon, water and energy footprints.

Concept of Compact City revolves around high-density development without compromising the quality of life of the people. Cities based on compact approach may or may not incorporate all dimensions of a green city approach, stated under section 5.4.1. This approach largely solves the problem of externalities such as friction on space (congestion), travel time delays and losses in economic productivity, air and water pollution, solid waste collection and disposal. The optimum density reduces the capital and operating costs of providing public infrastructure and services and improves overall accessibility.

Figure 5.2: Compact City's Concept and Approach

Source: Various sources including Fact Sheet, UNESCAP, MILUNET, Practitioner's Guide, 2006 etc.

As shown in the figure above, the efficient densification and effective intensification needs to be balanced in order to maintain the liveability of people.

5.4.2.1 Key Benefits of Compact city

The benefits of the compact city approach are:

■ Efficient use of land and urban containment

■ Increase in the number of ridership for economically viable MRTS

■ Environment protection by lowering the climatic change emissions

■ Protection of ecological diversity, countryside and land for agriculture

Efficient delivery of utility services in more densely populated areas. Due to the economies of scale in supplying energy, water and treating waste, it is less costly to deliver urban utility service in compact cities than in suburban areas $^{8}$ .

- Increased social interaction leading to safety against crime.

■ Less travelling distances that saves time, money and fuel consumption per capita.

The approach of compact city development is given overleaf:

5.4.2.2 Transit Oriented Development

Transit Oriented Development is a compact & integrated transportation development, which should be incorporated in Compact Cities. It is defined as, “any development, macro or micro that is focused around a transit node, and facilitates and complete ease of access to the transit facility, thereby inducing people to prefer to walk and use public transportation over personal modes of transport.”

TOD provides opportunities by access to high-quality public transportation by enhancing connectivity and contributing to attractive and walkable distances through

$^{8}$ Fact Sheet, UNESCAP.

$^{9}$ Draft UTTIPEC Guidelines, 2012.

densification. TOD Ideal land use mix and mixed land use development (with Density) and the Transit mode function at various city destinations are indicatively explained in the Table 5.3. High density, mixed-use and interconnected street networks reduce per capita vehicular trips. This can be achieved through a balanced mix of job, housing and markets along MRTS corridors.

Source: Transit Oriented Development Policy Guideline, Calgary, 2004.

As a whole, TOD encourages use of non-motorized transportation, directs compact high-density developments, intensifies under-utilized urban areas through redevelopment, leads to lower infrastructure costs and increases public safety, mobility options and health benefits.

5.4.2.3 Intensive Use of land

The intensive land use offers cities the possibility of (re)development of urban areas for a number of functions that, in combination, can offer residents, workers and visitors high quality services. This concept can be sub-divided into three types with combinations as shown in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3: Types of Intense Land Use

Source: MILUNET, Practitioner's Guide, 2006

Mixed Land Use: Mixed-use development is the practice of allowing more than one type of use in a building or set of buildings which can be a combination of residential, commercial, industrial, office, institutional or other land uses. It is presumed that mixed land uses yields socio-economic benefits and therefore has a positive effect on housing and commercial values.

Good mixed-use can be defined as a finely grained mix of primary land uses, namely a variety of housing and workplaces with housing predominant, closely integrated with all other support services, within convenient walking distance of the majority of the homes. (Murrain 1993:86). It is also referred as cellular development. Mixed use is to be carefully allowed along with the compatible use only. The mixed use of land and the dominant use thereof should be referred from Chapter 9 on Simplified Development Promotion Regulations.

The approaches for promoting mixed-use development can be by increasing intensity of land use, increasing diversity of land use or integrating segregated uses. The key parameters for integration of different uses can be:

The functional and physical integration of different uses such as Residential, Commercial – Retail & service and Public Semi Public.

- Integration of three or more significant revenue producing uses – Industrial, Commercial – Wholesale, Retail & service and Public Semi Public – offices

In an urban space, mixed use development can be planned at selected locations with ideal mix, such as a) City or town centres comprising the commercial and civic core of town and cities, b) Inner city areas and c) Peri-urban locations and greenfield sites in urban fringes as also indicated in Table 5.3.

A smart city uses information, communication and technology to enhance its liveability, workability and sustainability. A smart city is build-up by key basic functions: Information collection, communicating, and crunching (analysing). The two basic steps towards Smart city are:

1. DATA- Created by the already implemented information technology. Some of the Indian cities have created a cornucopia of data in past few decades, which can form the basis for the development of a Smart city.

2. DIGITAL DNA (BUILT ENVIRONMENT DATA)-Data collected by building departments, engineering departments, land department, planning department, tax department and department of postal services. India is still finding its footprints in this regard.

In view of rapid urbanisation and high congregation of population in large cities, it is imperative to make use of advances in technology, capability to make cities safer and protect cities from cyber-crime and also augment the quality of governance with higher levels of transparency and accountability. Such cities, which take advantage of advanced technology, are called as Smart Cities.

$^{10}$ MoEF Office Memorandum, Guidelines for High Rise Buildings, 2012.

5.4.3.1 Important Insights

The following figure provides the important insights of Smart City application globally.

Figure 5.5: Important insights of SMART city application globally

Source: Various sources including Smart Cities Readiness Guide, RICS-Smart Cities.

5.4.3.2 Universal Targets to achieve Smart city development

There are mandatory targets that must be accomplished in order to propel on the smart city path, these are termed as “Universal” as each of them applies to every city responsibility. The Check Sheet (Implementation Progress) reflects the strong and the weak points in the existing city infrastructure. Status of this matrix reflects the preparedness of the city to be a Smart city and helps in prioritizing the points on the basis of the status (progress) in order to drive on the path of development towards being a Smart city.

Figure 5.6: The Universal Targets

Source: Smart Cities Readiness Guide.

The essential elements of focus in a Smart city include:

5.4.3.3 Smart grid concept

A smart grid is a modernized electrical grid that uses analogue or digital information and communications technology to gather and act on information, such as information about the behaviours of suppliers and consumers, in an automated fashion to improve the efficiency, reliability, economics, and sustainability of the production and distribution of electricity. Metering and Smart power generations are the two basic steps taken in the direction of handling power in cities.

a. Smart meter- Smart meters help utilities to better detect and manage outages. Smart meters coupled with advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) helps to pinpoint problems in the grid, allowing determination of faults and failures in no time $^{11}$ .

b. Smart power generator- Smart power generation is a concept of matching electricity production with demand using multiple generators, alternatively to buffer the peak and high demand for load balancing. These generators are designed on smart technologies to operate efficiently at chosen load $^{12}$ .

$^{11}$ A U.S. Department of Energy study showed that real-time pricing information provided by the smart meter helped consumers reduce their electricity costs 10% on average and their peak consumption by 15%.

$^{12}$ Source:GE: Smart grid technology guide.

5.4.3.4 Smart Transportation Concept

The smart transportation refers to the integration of information and communication technologies with transport infrastructure to improve economic performance, safety, mobility and time saving of the citizens. The above can be accomplished by incorporating the following technologies in the existing structure:

a. Digital view terminals-These terminals provide users with an intelligent navigation system that optimizes the best routes, alternative destinations, efficient movement by a well-informed guidance from the terminal. For example, the entire city's bus lines, their stops, and drop-off and pick-up times are displayed on the terminals along with satellite street views of locations, such as of restaurants and other tourist attractions. Coordinates for banks, schools, hospitals, and real estate are also featured for the citizens to determine best-suited route between destinations.

b. Intelligent roads- It includes setting up of sensor technologies in the pavements and over the bridges, which can be combined with the data collected from moving vehicles to provide operators, maintenance authorities and road users with rapid warning of emerging problems.

c. Traffic Prediction Tool-It predicts traffic flows over pre-set durations (10, 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes) by stimulations. With these predictions, traffic controllers can anticipate and better manage the flow of traffic to prevent congestion and save time.

Other smart applications in the intelligent Transportation system may consist of:

■ Optimised dynamic signalling

■ Automatic parking system,

■ Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS),

■ Satellite application for emergency handling, traffic alerts, road safety and incident prevention

■ Automated transport systems.

Case Study: Malta, World's first Smart Island

Malta is a group of small islands 50 miles to the south of Sicily. Smart meters are installed in the island for both electric and water customers. These smart meters records the data automatically and sends the data back to the office for billing. Smart meters also act as the analysis instrument that locate problems and determine when and whether to expand the grid. The new smart water grid has increased theft detection, and has also introduced new pricing options for customers that reward conservation.

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Malta: World's first Smart Island

Source: Smart Cities Council-Readiness Guide.pdf

The goal of Smart City Malta is to put everything a high-tech company needs to succeed in one place, including state-of-the-art ICT infrastructure along with a host of IT, media and production services.

5.4.3.5 Application of Built Environment Data

The built environment data of the city is captured by the different departments to develop a blue print of the city and its attributes for virtual representation of the physical city. This data forms the DNA for the smart city. It includes:

■ Demographic distribution

- Land uses

■ Transportation and other infrastructure framework

■ Forests and parks

■ General urban plan

- Space and organization plan This data when linked with the Information communication and technology develops the digital DNA, which forms the basis for the Smart city. The software and service layers for the built environment data can contain the following layers$^{13}$:

Data layer: that presents all the information, which is required, produced and collected in the smart city.

$^{13}$ Source: Urban Planning and Smart Cities: Interrelations and Reciprocities, Leonidas G. Anthopoulos.

■ Service layer: This incorporates all the particular e-services being offered by the smart city.

Infrastructure layer: that contains network, information systems and other facilities, which contribute to e-Service deployment.

User layer: that concerns all e-service end-users and the stakeholders of a smart city for dialoguing and in decision-making. The participation includes:

- The local stakeholders – who supervise the smart city, and design

- Those who offer e-services- and

- The end-users -who "consume" the smart city's services

5.4.3.6 Urban planning and smart city interrelations

On the attributes discussed in the preceding section, various e-service portfolios can be offered in a modern smart city, some of which have been mentioned below:

Source: Compiled from Urban Planning & Smart Cities: Interrelations and Reciprocities, Leonidas G. Anthopoulos.

Urbanisation over centuries and evolving city morphology has given shape to the present day cities in India. Most post-independence cities have emerged from planned directions and yet have experienced population explosion. Cities also have benefited from planning based on Government schemes and programmes. However, the functions of the urban centres have taken natural course to its maturity, without or with intended interventions. These are the consequences of response of human settlement and interaction of societies. Focus on planning even application of land use standards and development controls could vary depending upon the typology of the cities.

Situation of the city: Situation of the city is the prime factor to be considered while planning. City situation is established on its growth in size, physical configuration or route pattern and largely with its function. Cities, besides multi-functional, can be also defined on the basis of the prime economic activity and/or evolution of the city. Such cities with typical location, situation and functions need focused approach while planning, to address the associated issues. Some of such kinds are:

■ Hill cities,

■ Inner cities/ walled cities,

■ Industrial cities,

Religious cities,

■ Tourism cities,

■ Heritage cities,

■ Port cities,

■ Medi-cities (townships),

■ Sports cities (townships)

Site and situation specific solutions: These cities, owning to its nature of development and population, and either permanent, new settlers or floating population, have specific functions and therefore have associated issues. Some of the generic ones are:

- Lack of alternative economic activities,

■ Stagnation of city growth,

■ Strict segregation of classes by profession and income,

■ High crime rate,

- Lack of public spaces,

- Lack of recreational activities,

- Lack of educational facilities for low income class/ poor,

■ Significant ratio of bachelor population,

- Lack of gender specific health facilities and other facilities,

■ Investment oriented land/property ownership,

- Others: pressure on public utilities, lack of social guidance in case of exposure to cultural variation etc.

Such as, in case of industrial cities or township, specific drawbacks are observed like lack of recreational activities, lack of alternative economic opportunities, and social activities. These townships are limited to work - home relationship and lack recreational activities and therefore, there is a need to focus on providing dedicated public spaces for population to interact in such cities/towns.

Similarly, other city typologies also have specific issues to be addressed for which approach can be defined while preparing plans. Mix of economic activities such as service industries and social activities should be promoted to encourage the avenues for wholesome development.

Increased rate of crime as observed in some industrial and port town is primarily due to segregation of population income classes, lack of recreational activities, lack of educational facilities for low income class, and to some extent due to high proportion male workers living without families and also large number of bachelor population.

Therefore to promote sustainability of cities, its situation in terms of its function and its social behaviour shall be addressed. Such cases need emphasis on complimentary requirements of the city, besides its prime economic activity and physical infrastructure for holistic development of the city. Some of the complementary activities are suggested below-

■ Promotion of service industries,

■ Educational facilities with emphasis on technical institutes

- TOD mix of institutional and administrative land use,

■ Social infrastructure, targeting needs of specific strata of population

■ Recreational facilities, also theme based facilities

■ Heritage and religious activities to be promoted for mixing of economic base and population

- Earmarked spaces for the urban poor / informal sector residents or their activities$^{14}$.

The National Building Code defines hilly areas as “Any area above 600 m in height from mean sea level, or any area with average slope of $30^{\circ}$ , considering the sensitive and fragile eco-system of hills and mountains.” However, the State Governments may identify and notify areas to be covered under ‘Hilly Area’, which need to be dealt with special consideration, when developmental activities are taking up.

Hilly areas have fragile ecosystems, which need to be conserved. Therefore planning and development strategies for hilly areas shall have to be designed with added sensitivity and sound land use planning and settlement planning.

5.5.1.1 Associated Issues

Hilly areas have a sensitive ecosystem consisting of mountains, rivers and valleys, several lineaments and some of them even experience extreme weather conditions. These varied natural features also make hilly areas a suitable place for tourist destination, thus creating a pull for commercial development and urbanisation. Also, many rivers originate from the Northern Himalayan range, thus the areas attract development of hydro power plants, which directly or indirectly have shown great impact on the river hydrology and bio-diversity.

The common issues associated with planning in Hilly areas are:

Hilly areas in Himalayas and Northeast experience heavy rainfall, which makes the shallow soil, cover highly susceptible to erosion (such as in Darjeeling)$^{15}$. These conditions necessitate conserving the precious soil cover during monsoons and harvesting irrigation water for dry months. In other areas heavy rainfall causes deep weathering of sedimentary rock and rapid and active erosion of weathered materials from steep slopes.

- There are issues with respect to mobility and connectivity due to steep slopes and difficult terrain.

Also geographically younger hill areas with high seismic activities make settlements vulnerable to disaster risks. In such areas regulating construction activity is of prime importance in planning.

In hilly areas, remarkable variations in culture and practices(including in many places tribal culture and rich craft skill) exists between the settlements even within short distances as compared to those in plain areas $^{16}$

As terrain plays a crucial role in the hilly areas, settlements are to be on definite habitable lands only and thus, its carrying capacity needs to be determined for adequate planning.

The planning status of hilly areas, in the present state, is uncontrolled creating haphazard growth due to need for urbanisation, industrialisation (such as quarrying and hydro power generation) and intrusion of commercial activities (such as tourism industry) on the limited land cover, typically along

$^{14}$ Also Suggested in ‘Strategy paper on master plan formulation, inclusive planning, prioritization for housing and pedestrian movement, 2010’

$^{15}$ Planning Commission Report of Task Group on Problems in Hilly habitations.

$^{16}$ Report of the Evaluation Study on Hill area Development programme in Assam and West Bengal", Planning Commission, June 2010.

hill routes. These trends has led to encroachment on forest land and precious green cover, construction on unsuitable lands and development at higher level of ridges, thereby disturbing the natural ecosystem and making the areas more vulnerable to disasters.

- The impacts on infrastructure are - traffic chaos, inefficient service infrastructure and congestion in prime locations, inadequate social infrastructure.

- The impacts on the environment are loss of hill and forests, degradation of stream system, landslide and erosion, increase in natural hazard as earthquake, landslide and manmade hazards such as air pollution and roadway noise.

5.5.1.2 Strategies for Development

Hilly areas have various factors, which necessitate a thrust on adoption of an integrated planning approach for conservation, preservation and planned development.

Strategy 1: Land Conservation and Optimisation:

1. Environment Inventory/ Impact Assessment: For planning of the new settlements or working out the strategies for the growth of the existing settlements, it is necessary to conduct detailed environmental inventory/ impact assessment. The inventory would involve geological investigations, slope analysis, soil, flora and fauna analysis, climatic inventories, vulnerability to natural disasters (such as earthquakes, landslides, floods etc.), etc. In addition to this the aesthetic factors, cultural, architectural and historical heritage, scenic/ landscape value shall also be taken into consideration.

2. Identification of Developable Area: Identification of developed area is calculated by deducting the natural ecological area from the entire township jurisdiction. Jurisdiction may be large to control the surrounding areas. The classification of land uses should be given only for developed area, while the rest of the ecological area shall be for conservation or restoration.

Hill Town Developable Area = Hill town jurisdiction area - Natural Ecological Area.

3. Land use optimisation: Keeping in view the scarcity of good buildable land and also the high cost of the construction, it is necessary to optimize the use of land by calculation of carrying capacity and land suitability analysis. Green building approach should be adopted such as use of cost effective and appropriate building materials and technologies.

5.5.1.3 Proposed Land use Structure of Hill Towns

The proposed land use structure for hill towns are:

Source: UDPFI Guidelines, 1996.

The ecological area (non-developable area) given in the table above for Hill towns is applicable for the hill town jurisdiction developable area only. Hill town developable area shall be considered as area hill town jurisdiction minus natural ecological area. Where, non-developable area is defined as - Earthquake/landslide prone, cliffs and environmentally hazardous area, areas adjacent to fault lines, areas with slope higher than $45^{\circ}$ , flood plain and areas adjacent to major drainage lines for general guidance and all environmentally sensitive areas. Land suitability analysis should be an important tool in first principal approach for deciding on land use proportions.

5.5.1.4 Aspects of planning $^\{19\}$

The important aspects to be considered in planning for the hilly areas are suggested as below:

1. The hillside with less than $30^{\circ}$ slope are in general stable. Therefore, building sites (temporary or permanent) should in general be located on hillside with not more than $30^{\circ}-45^{\circ}$ slope. In areas where

$^{13}$ http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/6th/6planch25.html.

$^{19}$ NBC, 2005 & IS 14243, 1995 b.

most of the land is above $30^{\circ}$ degree slope, spatial regulations should control construction activity on slopes above $30^{\circ}$ degree with maximum of $45^{\circ}$ provided that appropriate technology is used.

2. The maximum height of the building to be fixed, such as in States of Meghalaya maximum building height permitted is 15 meters on hills.

3. Flat land is normally not available in hilly regions. The houses are required to be constructed on partially sloping land made available by cut and fill. It shall be necessary to protect the house by building retaining walls/breast walls to avoid landslides occurring at time of earthquakes or heavy rains.

4. Cut slopes with height less than 5 m or two to three storey heights of residential buildings are in general stable. For higher cut slopes special investigation should be carried out and details of protection works should be worked out and implemented.

5. Site development in hilly regions consumes about 30 to 40 per cent of total cost of building complex, therefore the following investigations shall be done to obtain the following geotechnical parameters:

a. Type of Soil Rock: Weathered or intact, dip of bedding planes, drainage conditions, shear planes, material between the joints, tension cracks, type of plantation, verticality of trunks of the trees etc. Cliff sides and spur faces need to be protected with appropriate technology including where netting with tables and/or blowing of RCC along the walls.

b. Thickness of overburden, nature of soil strata, details of soil matrix etc.

c. Estimation of shear-parameters of the in situ soil mass, which will govern the failure.

d. Drainage pattern of the area and permeability tests in the area to see the Drainage conditions.

e. Specific slip zones in the area, if any.

6. Roads and paths: Street orientation shall preferably be East-West to allow for maximum South sun to enter the buildings. The street shall be wide enough to ensure that the buildings on one side do not shade those on the other side. Hill Road Manual (IRC: SP: 48-1998) should be referred to for detailed guidelines for planning roads in Hilly Areas.

7. Provisions for Landslide Hazard Mitigation, Seismic Micro-zonation and mitigation of Liquefaction hazard should be integrated.

Walled cities, old city, often central zones, which are also generally the core area of the settlements, are referred as inner cities. These city parts have been the melting pot for cultures with a history. Some of the old cities have been historically an important trading centre, owing to its regional prominence, strategic location and trade links. However, owing to its prosperity, some of the cities were under the threat of plunder and loot, which reshaped the city form over the centuries (as also walled cities). These cities are marked by key features, such as, narrow roads (gullies), dense built-up, often mixed use of land, small plot sizes occupying 100% ground for built-up, social homogeneity, limited public spaces, which are usually congested developments, in comparison to the modern day cities.

5.5.2.1 Associated Issues

Common issues associated with the inner cities:

■ Out migration of local residents and release of residential spaces for commercial use,

- Dilapidated buildings (as building owners only repair their buildings, while little or no reconstruction is takes place) and vacant properties,

- Narrow roads- not planned for vehicular movement,

■ Unorganized on-street parking at various locations,

- No prominent public transport system present in the city,

■ Presence of cottage or household industries and polluting industries

- Prominence of on-street encroachments for informal markets & hawkers,

Due to shift from residential to commercial land use, emergence of warehouses, go-downs, workshops or other non-compatible activities,

- Old water supply distribution network and in non-metric sizes, difficult to maintain,

■ Repeated excavation of roads damaging the underground utilities and disturbed road levels,

Overall lack of social infrastructure facilities compared to the density of the inner cities

- Outcrop of Slum like conditions in the open areas surrounding historical properties or on old recreational open spaces

5.5.2.2 Alternative strategies for the Redevelopment and Regeneration

Redevelopment and regeneration are the prime planning aspects of inner cities. The space norms and development control rules that are generally applicable to other city areas are normally not applicable to inner cities. The two alternatives for the

redevelopment of an inner city/ old city are based on the strategy of revival or in-situ development. These are:

Alternative 1- Modification in Built-up: In this approach, the residential built up is adjusted with the plot size and height from urban renewal point of view. The building density is redefined, usually by increasing the permissible FAR/FSI as permissible by the available infrastructure. It allows the market forces to reconstruct and redevelop the core city areas. The urban local authority may provide supporting infrastructure through betterment levy or charges. This tool of redevelopment is in practise in major cities like, Hyderabad and in some parts of the old Delhi (Shahajahanabad). Abutting road width, plot sizes, accessibility and land use regulates the increased building height. This entails amalgamation of plots.

This alternative can be applied for the entire inner city or it could be limited to an identified area such as along the transport corridors as in the case of Old Delhi (Shahajahanabad) wherein a 500 meter influence zone of metro rail is permitted with a suitable enhanced FAR. $^{21}$

An added advantage of this alternative is amalgamation of residential units. To improve the morphology of the core city, increase in unit size of the residential plots is also often necessary, especially where very small units are present. Higher FSI, for medium size plots, even marginally will lead to amalgamation of small and very small plots by market forces. This will improve the urban design and density of residential areas. However amalgamation of plots is to be carried out in lines with regulations, which is to be defined based on the study of the area by the local authority. The redevelopment project of east Kidwai Nagar, New Delhi is among the first initiatives as a vision project of Ministry of Urban Development.

Alternative 2- In-situ Development: In order to conserve the characteristics of the inner city, this alternative is adopted to maintain and revive the old city by different mechanisms. Unlike the alternative 1, in-situ development maintains the height and the building foot print, by carefully using Transferable Development Rights (TDR). This alternative is used where the redevelopment strategy is to maintain and encourage the heritage of the city and its housing morphology, as in the case of Ahmedabad, where Tradable Development Rights are provided for the notified Structures, Buildings and Precincts in the form of Tradable Right Certificate by competent authority. However the authority controls other activities such as:

- The Permissible Uses for the Heritage Areas and other buildings on the basis of its plot size and floor.

■ Amalgamation and/or Sub-division not be permitted in the Zone,

- The owners of these heritage structures and buildings are required to conserve the following original aspects of their Buildings:

- All Façades

- Building Footprint

- Character of Open Spaces such as courtyards, khadki, streets, etc.

The in-situ development also does not encourage road widening until necessary, as it aims to preserve the building façade. Therefore parking spaces are created through community initiatives and by consultative process. In case if it is not feasible to provide the required parking within the existing building as per Regulations, the Competent Authority may recover fees for deficit parking to develop on-street parking/parking lots/parking structures as a part of Parking Management Plan.

The concept of Accommodation Reservation may be introduced for social infrastructure whereby for the provision of essential public facilities to be handed over to the local body / government, the owner of

$^{21}$ Source: ITPI article by A.K. Jain, Commissioner (Planning), Delhi Development Authority.

property is given full permissible FAR on the component of public facility. Vacant properties should be preferred for this purpose.

The two alternatives of redevelopment to be chosen carefully and a combination of the two may be used for suitable sub-zones in an inner city. However the redevelopment strategy is to cover the key aspect i.e. positive growth for the city to be a liveable area and also as a work space. Therefore in most of the Indian inner cities, mixed land use is to be recognised as permissible and thereafter organised, as the city is planned on the concept of work & live with inherited benefit of reduced travel trips. The land use structure given in Table 5.2 could be modified and adjusted for mixed land use as planned by the local authority. To achieve this, regeneration is to be a part of the redevelopment, including socio-economic development, maintaining and encouraging commercial lifeline of the inner city for its revival.

5.5.2.3 Aspects of Revival

While planning, planners face the problems associated with road levels, lying of new pipelines, parking in residential areas, decongestion, fire safety issues, requirement of road widening and lose of heritage façade, provision of land for social infrastructure and sometimes re-planning underground infrastructure. Core city revival is based on conservation, promotion and solution. These can be:

1. Out-Shifting of polluting, noxious and hazardous trades / industries and de-limitation of non-residential non-compatible activity with priority,

2. To decongest the inner city, proposal can be to develop counter centres in the form of Integrated Freight Complexes at the peripheral location or new industrial area,

3. Iconic developments along the historically valuable areas and if space allows - encourage city level recreational areas to create a pull factor towards the old city,

4. A new set of development controls for Mixed Use, enhanced FAR and TDR applicability. Mixed use to be maintained with regulations on the road width, plot sizes and density,

5. Conservation and restoration of historical buildings. Provisions for FAR and Tax incentives for those who have to maintain the architectural controls,

6. Revival of cities by alternative public transport system technically modified for the road network and as per the trip generation,

7. For parking, multi-level parking is one of the solutions for identified residential pedestrian,

8. In case of new development or redevelopment, stilt parking to be mandatory,

9. Adding street furniture can enhance street design. This is to facilitate public space for community interaction and promote pedestrian movement,

10. In congested and bottle neck areas, solutions such as one ways and multi-level parking to be adopted,

11. Alternative solutions of use of smaller fire hydrants for very narrow roads for the fire safety,

12. To meet the social infrastructure requirement, reducing space norms up to 50-60% in case of space non-availability in the core city. In order to compensate for the shortfall in various types and levels of facilities in the existing built-up area, such facilities may be provided in contiguous / proximity to sectors of new development.

13. Multi-functional uses should be proposed to encourage optimum utilisation of existing built-up infrastructure.

14. ULBs to initiate developing database of the buildings, with attributes such as its age, height, heritage value, revenue collection and other points as desirable.

Cities with major thrust in manufacturing and production are industrial cities. Such a focus on manufacturing was initially in the beginning five year plans after

independence, when the focus was on heavy iron and steel manufacturing. Industrialisation again boosted after liberalisation in 1991 and encouraged developing clusters for export in 2005 by the SEZ Act, 2005, which provides for the establishment, development and management of the Special Economic Zones for the promotion of exports. There were also schemes proposed for promotion of cluster/ park development by respective Ministries, while Small Scale Industry (SSI) was defined under Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises (MSMED) Act, 2006.

Lately, Government of India has also announced the National Manufacturing Policy in year 2011 with the objective to enhance the share of manufacturing in GDP and increasing employment. Under the National Manufacturing Policy, the New Investment and Manufacturing Zones (NIMZ) guidelines was cleared by the Cabinet in 2011.

5.5.3.1 Associated issues

The following are the key concerns for industrial area planning:

Industrial cities are marked by high intensity of noise levels and air pollution levels, which makes unsuitable for residential. Also, improper discharges of liquid and solid industrial waste/effluents are concerns for health. These hazard prone activities have a direct impact on residential areas,

■ Movement of heavy traffic for transportation of raw material and finished goods, large share of the traffic load on the roads (highways) & rail,

- Lack of supporting infrastructure such as logistics, warehousing,

- Industries face power problems with respect to unscheduled cuts, which affects the productivity, especially in the continuous process plants. In order to make up for production loss, industries have to operate DG sets which eventually increase the overall production cost and air pollution,

- Lack of emergency facilities for fire safety and accidents, including medical infrastructure and health care,

■ Absence of integration with research and development and ICT infrastructure in Indian industrial cities,

■ Unplanned infrastructure provisions for various utilities, both underground and on surface,

- Limited space for industrial plots, allowing no expansion in future,

Other issues associated with industrial township are:

■ Issues of compatibility between processing and non-processing areas,

- Lack of alternative economic activities leading to stagnation of city growth,

- Some of the industrial towns also show high rate of crime. This is primarily due to segregation of classes, lack of recreational activities, lack of educational facilities for labour class, and to some extent due to a portion of the population is bachelor,

- Ignorance on the public transportation in the industrial areas for labour and managerial labour,

- Lack of housing for construction labour, who continue to live within and adjacent to the industrial cities for years and lack of housing requirements for low income labour and informal employment.

5.5.3.2 Planning strategies

Site location of the industrial city is the prime aspect of its planning. The siting criteria shall satisfy the environmental requirements mentioned by Ministry of Environment and Forest, which is with sufficient buffers, distance from a large size town and agricultural land (refer Chapter 6 for specifics).

Land suitability analysis to be done for identifying zones for placing hazardous industrial (uses including air polluting units and wind directions), other manufacturing industrial, compatible uses along surface water bodies, hamlets and settlements and placing of non-processing areas. For locating

industrial zone, preference to areas with easy connectivity, provision for logistics and areas with existing industries to be given, also wind directions to be considered.

Zoning for processing and non-processing areas is recommended in the ratio of 40:60 (especially in SEZ). The land use regulations have to keep in view the requirements of both these areas according to the activities envisaged. Due to the health concerns and safeguards, provision of green buffers of minimum of 500 meters between compatible and non-compatible shall be well defined while zoning(as given in Chapter 6).

Processing area: may be comprise of the following activities:

■ Industries / manufacturing;

Ancillary & MSMEs;

■ Retail Trade and commerce;

■ Go-downs and warehousing;

■ Utility corridor;

■ Port and port related activities;

■ Airport and related uses, rail, road and inland waterway and spaces for parking etc.;

■ Public utilities and any other essential services;

- Incidental and other activities for safety and security; and essential residential for the same;

■ Governmental use / activities to manage the proper functioning of such processing areas.

■ Information Technology and Enabled Services;

Within the processing areas, space for informal commercial, service industries and parking as per industrial requirement to be paid attention. For development of various types of parks – like IT parks, Plastic parks, Bio-technology parks, Food parks, Agro park, etc. the policy and norms issued by respective departments and guidelines available to be considered for planning. In absence of such handholding provisions, case studies of the specific industrial sector to be referred.

Cluster development: A cluster approach may be taken to optimise use or resources and minimise cost of production. For example, all work related to computers, IT, Communication can be housed in a cluster at the outskirts of processing area to minimise heavy transportation with in the city. Small clusters related to IT and communication can also be accommodated with in the non-processing area at uniform distance for easy reach of availability of all services in time.

Non-processing areas: Areas other than processing area are to be planned for various uses and activities, mainly as an industrial township including residential, commercial, recreational and activities related to social infrastructure like education, health care, and socio-cultural facilities.

Social infrastructure: The overall quantum of social infrastructure to be provided in the industrial township may be divided into two levels of facilities, including - Industrial city level Facilities and Local Level Facilities.

Land use: An industrial township should provide for a judicious mix of land uses / activities in such a way that it is not dependant on the neighbouring or other city. The norms and standards for distribution of land use may be as under $^{22}$ .

5.5.3.3 Proposed Land use Structure of Industrial towns

$^{22}$ Draft SEZ Guidelines study by TCPO presented to the Parliament Standing Committee.
$^{23}$ Ibid.

5.5.3.4 Aspects of planning

The industrial town should primarily be a modern state-of-the-art township having world-class infrastructure $^{24}$ , high quality living, working and entertainment provisions, which are particularly suited to the flexible uses and space demands of modern technology and knowledge based activities.

Heritage areas and cities with historical and tangible / intangible cultural values; preserved, conserved and evolved by social interactions and changing economic factors have given shape to tourism in these cities. The World Heritage Organisation, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Tourism have laid focus on the conservation, restoration and promotion of cultural heritage. Among these historical cities, pilgrim destinations and centres of religious values have emerged with broad base economic activity of tourism. Close observation of these cities revels that these cities were not designed for large population influx. Many of the religious towns with pilgrim destination in India are located on the fronts of water bodies or in the fragile ecosystems, (such as in the Himalayan ranges) where the balance between human activities and the nature is sensitive issue. It is crucial to include the eco-sensitive area mapping, evaluation of carrying capacity (refer Chapter 7 for details) and provision of eco-tourism in planning for such towns.

Planned tourism is a major contributor to cities' economy. Tourism sector provides a high multiplier in employment generation. Tourist cities' economy may almost be totally based on tourism.

As evolved from the Tourism 2020 Vision, UNWTO 2002, ‘cities or places of high population density where trips are taken by travellers for leisure and recreation can be referred as tourism cities’. Besides, the heritage and religious cities, as mentioned before, tourism cities/regions have developed from natural tourism, sports tourism, adventure tourism, rural tourism, and wellness tourism, among others. The National Tourism Policy, 2002, Ministry of Tourism rests on the principle of:

$^{25}$ Source: Based on UDPFI Guidelines, 1996

- Institutional framework may be based on participation between Government and the private sector. Government to provide legislative framework to regulate tourism trade and private sector to tourism related activities,

The deep rooted relationship of tourism and culture to be realised, and promotion of cultural tourism should be encouraged focusing culture related (craft, art, performing art, living style as) saleable products for tourist.

- Greater emphasis on Eco-tourism, focusing on natural landscapes and other environmental features and also virgin traditional rural environment etc.

- Special thrust may be imparted to rural tourism and tourism in small settlements, where sizable assets of our cultural and natural wealth exist.

Linking heritage, build and nature with tourism is important. Heritage sites both global (world heritage sites) and natural are to be identified and protected. Such areas should be integrated with rest of the development based on rules and regulations specified by World Heritage Centre, Archaeological Survey of India and State Governments. Protection of sites of historical value other than officially designated at local area level may be identified and integrated in the Regional/ Development / LAPs.

Some of the issues associated with heritage cities, religious cities and cities of tourism potential are:

■ Influx of the floating population or tourists,

■ Assessment of areas of influence of tourism/ pilgrimage,

■ Pressure on fragile/sensitive tourism zones and on eco-tourism sites in the tourist circuits,

■ Seasonal variation of the local economic base,

Unclear infrastructure estimations & planning estimations for the tourism towns due to fluctuation in the population to be served,

■ Transport planning issues associated with terrain, slopes and undulated systems,

■ Conservation and improvement of land profile, areas of scenic value and utilization of site features for strengthening the ambience,

- Issues in solid waste management especially in religious/pilgrim towns,

■ Street vending activities in the popular religious and tourist sites and measures for their rehabilitation,

- Lack of documentation of heritage buildings and areas and application of general architectural control in historical areas,

■ Supporting investment in heritage assets and generating returns by ULBs or by private sector,

- Lack of social guidance in case of exposure to cultural variation, specifically in international tourism destination, et al.

A tourism city planning strategy is to be broadly based on the understanding -

For ‘Nature’ in its many forms, its mountains, streams, sylvan surroundings;

Its ‘Culture’ as manifest in the art, architecture, temples and pilgrim towns;

Its 'History' as seen in the archaeology of the tangible and intangible outputs of an earlier era.

On $10^{\text{th}}$ November 2011, UNESCO's General Conference adopted the new recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape by acclamation, as an additional tool to integrate policies and practices of conservation of the built environment into the wider goals of urban development in respect of the inherited values and traditions of different cultural contexts. The UNESCO General Conference recommended its Member

States to take the appropriate steps to facilitate its implementation and further recommended that Member States and relevant local authorities identify within their specific contexts the critical steps to implement the Historic Urban Landscape approach, which may include the following:

To undertake comprehensive surveys and mapping of the city's natural, cultural and human resources;

- To reach consensus using participatory planning and stakeholder consultations on what values to protect for transmission to future generations and to determine the attributes that carry these values;

• To assess vulnerability of these attributes to socio-economic stresses and impacts of climate change;

To integrate urban heritage values and their vulnerability status into a wider framework of city development, which shall provide indications of areas of heritage sensitivity that require careful attention to planning, design and implementation of development projects;

- To prioritize actions for conservation and development;

To establish the appropriate partnerships and local management frameworks for each of the identified projects for conservation and development, as well as to develop mechanisms for the coordination of the various activities between different actors, both public and private.

Through adopted strategies, such as of UNESCO's new Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape, the local conservation approach is to be defined by the local authority in lines with the broader prevailing policies in India. However application of conservation, preservation and promotion is not to be equally treated. With detailed mapping, documentation and analysis, zones of treatment and extend of tourism may be identified for sustainable development. Figure 5.8 explains the integrated approach to tourism city/region planning.

High Value zone: The core zone of heritage, religious or of tourism value is the high value zone. This may consist of Natural Heritage or Built Heritage or both. Ethnic value of the zone is of the highest level and is meant for preservation. The carrying capacity of this value zone is the key to the tourism potential of the city.

Figure 5.8: Integrated approach to Tourism City/Region Planning

Native's Zone: This can be called as the residential zone of the locals or the settlement. This zone usually overlaps with the high value zone, as mentioned earlier, due to social interactions and economic relationships. The economic benefits of tourism are measurable in the native zone and improvement in the quality of life of the local population can be achieved through planned development. This zone is for conservation of the culture, valuable architecture, and for promotion of local economy. This zone is

suggested for innovative strategies to provide the city with a consistent image and therefore provide significant revenue and added value to its residents.

New infrastructure zone: The city periphery or outer zone is the new development zone. This outer zone is for the new development to come-up to meet the tourism requirements for the promotion of tourism and for city growth. By understanding market trends through market analysis, demand and needs of the tourist is to be assessed for the Tourism Product Development $^{26}$ such as experiential-shopping, festivals, emotional-cultural and historic resources, hospitality, physical-infrastructure, natural resources, restaurants, accommodation. In doing so, tourist attraction spots and areas should be first made easily accessible. Depending on the quality of such tourist area, certain experience based tourist trails can be planned with adequate support of logistics. These new developments should be integrated with the inner two zones.

The investment in this zone can draw from the various tourism infrastructure development schemes by the State. Promotion of tourism as an economic activity, alternative economic base including thrust in institutional & commercial developments is to be adopted in this zone & if allowable in Native's Zone too.

In case of tourism regions/circuits, the new infrastructure zone may be wide spread and can be considered as the rest of the area of the region/circuit outside high value zone and native's zone. A tourism circuit will have various nucleus of high value zone bedded by the thread of connectivity.

Networks: The integration of the zones is to be strong with networks. Networks to connect zones for accessibility between the two outer zones i.e. new infrastructure zone and native's zone shall have strong linkages, while from eco-sensitive approach; the High Value zone shall have limited access (if possible pedestrian). For the protection of the (built and natural) heritage from the adverse impacts of tourism, adoption of greener tourism in this zone is the key. For improving external connectivity up to the tourist city/ nodes in the tourist circuit, alternative modes of transportation should be promoted.

Simple practical steps to reduce adverse impact on the environment and promote the benefits of tourism are through zoning. Local consultative approach to be taken for tourism based livelihood development, physical infrastructure, transport and tourists, heritage and tourism conservation, environment and tourism, any other. However, a generalised land use structure is proposed below.

5.5.4.3 Proposed Land use Structure of Heritage/ Religious/ Tourism city

Source: Modified based on the Proposed Land use Structure for Urban Centers and analysis of various case studies (including Agra, Puri, Rameshwar, Hampi, Bodhgaya etc.)

$^{26}$ Tourism Product Development is a key factor in the overall experience demanded by tourists visiting cities or other types of destinations. Understanding market trends through market analysis will help create a strategy that will match tourists' needs and demands.

1. In line, with the objectives of the Ministry of Culture, (RFD 2013-14), planning for heritage cities to include- ‘safeguard of various forms of Intangible Cultural Heritage and promote research through financial support to artistes, scholars and cultural organizations and Manage national monuments (Tangible Heritage) of India through Archaeological Survey of India, State Governments, Universities, Local Bodies’.

2. Special attention to be paid while planning for religious settlements along the river fronts and water bodies, where emphasis is to be laid on conservation of water bodies, reduction of pollution (due to incompatible activities), improper solid waste management and no alteration of the watershed system of the area.

3. For the application of the conservation, preservation and promotion in various zones of treatment and flow of tourist, the various planning aspects can be adopted:

a. Development plan should include historic & religious zones as special zones where all Development should be permitted by the competent authority.

b. Development controls to be based on ground realities with a separate section on urban design approach (such as façade controls) for improving aesthetics of the town at large,

c. Standardisation of Urban Design in the preservation and conservation zone including: Typical elevation of the houses, Building height, Elevation colour theme, Building material (Maintain and encouraging local building material use), Typical styles for column, bracket, balcony, motifs. While the usable area inside should be free from regulation.

d. Visibility of historical monuments and façade of the core zone to be maintained and implementation of the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites & Remains Act, 2010 (AMASR).

e. Signages to be specified and preferably aesthetically fitted, (as given in Shimla Master Plan)

4. Formation of a Heritage Conservation Committee within the Municipality/Development Authority for the heritage cities is suggested as an implementation agency for Heritage related policies and plans. The cell to essentially consist of Planners, Conservation architects, Archaeologist, Structure (retrofitting) engineer, urban designer, Property evaluator, representative from ASI, members from revenue department, town planning department and local representatives (councillor). Its roles & responsibility may include:

a. Strict implementation of Central & State Government policies

b. Carry out Heritage related studies & surveys, categorising heritage properties and mapping

c. Formulate special heritage guidelines

d. Formulate & implement Heritage related Development Control regulations and make revisions for the ‘regulated zone’ as per the AMASR Act, 2010

e. Any heritage related notification and fines

f. Equipment and infrastructure for maintenance of the heritage buildings to be acquired and maintained

g. Conducting workshops, awareness programs and cultural activities

h. Support heritage property owners in repair and maintenance and suggestions for retrofitting of old structures

5. The tourism plan may also include:

a. Promotion of Heritage walkway and River front walkway,

b. Landscaping & Up-gradation of available open spaces

c. Revival of urban water bodies

d. Seasonal tourism events such as Fair and Festivals to be organised as per the approved 'Guidelines for Financial Assistance to State Government / Union Territory Administrations for Organizing Fair and Festivals and Tourism related Events'.

e. Alternative modes of transportation to be encouraged in the tourism plan. Key nodes on transportation networks to have Tourist Information Centre/kiosk.

f. Marketing strategies of the tourism destinations to be well-defined including generating revenue to the local population, apart from employment generation estimations. On average, Employment generation by tourism industry as direct and indirect is suggested for hotel industry (per room) by the Tourism Policy is:

i. Direct employment: 2 persons

ii. Indirect employment: 3 persons

A coastal city whose seafront is dominated by port and which has come into existence primarily due to port activities is referred to as a Port City. Such cities represent exceptional developmental potential due to their maritime identity. Coastal features remarkably notable within the high-low tide line mark are mudflats, salt pans, estuaries, creeks, mangroves, coral reefs, geomorphological features with patches under sand and beaches; scrubs, plantations, forests and sometimes horticulture. On the other hand, easy access to large water body of the port leads to development of coastal infrastructure, fishing activities, salt manufacturing, presence of industries and even power plants, which provide an advantage to the City development by means of bearing the benefits of its location. Besides the coastal advantages, these sites are connected to the hinterland by rail and roads.

The challenge in the management of such a city lies in the balanced development of port activities, environmental protection and urbanisation. Key issues associated with port city planning are:

- Challenge to sustain the port city's activities while transforming into major economic centres. Some of the ports have intensified port activities, which have resulted in increasing pressure on land for urbanisation.

■ Development of compatible land uses, activity areas and integration of port, industries, logistics facilities and the residential zones, with the provision of adequate green buffer and connectivity.

■ Decentralised development through provision of self-contained zones within the Port City region.

■ Preservation of ecologically fragile areas, water bodies and their basins, CRZ and forests.

Identification and planning for the Coastal Regulations Zone and land under the High Tide lines per the CRZ regulations and major use of the available waterfront.

■ Attempts along the port land to reclaim land impacting the marine ecology.

- Lack of alternative economic activities leading to stagnation of city growth.

- Some of the port towns also show high rate of crime. This is primarily due to segregation of classes; lack of recreational activities, lack of educational facilities for labour class, and to some extent due to a considerable percentage of the population is bachelor.

A port and a city usually have two distinct entities, the port operational area and the civil city. These two entities may be differently administered and managed, however, under the Indian Port Act (IPA), 1908; the Port Trust is the nodal agency for the port operational area and, at times the civil city too. In some cases port city may have the administration under the municipal law, hence planning for port city must take into account the conditions of IPA 1908. Planning for the port for which the jurisdictional

area is well defined is to be done by the Port Trust. While planning for the civil city may be done by the Port Trust or by the Town and Country Planning Department/ relevant body of the State.

A growth model in general is observed for port city, which evolves from harbour to a heavy manufacturing base, eventually leading to a commercial growth centre. The pressure on land impacts its demographic profile and land values. Also, industrial development requires supporting residential development. Often ancillary and service industries, warehousing facilities, logistic sector, truck and heavy vehicle parking areas begin cropping up around the industrial development. This is the stage where the unplanned proliferation of developmental activities start and a strong need for planning intervention is felt. Slowly the surrounding land's real estate value rises and commercial development intensifies. As a result worker population increases and forward linkages are established as services like institutional development, development of financial institutions, corporate offices, BPO amongst others. As the quality of infrastructure and service improves, eventually the tourism sector also grows.

International and Indian port cities, viz, Mumbai, Vishakhapatnam, Shanghai and Singapore reflect presence of industrial manufacturing base and other key components such as city size and population density. Land use pattern of Los Angeles and Vishakhapatnam, amongst others have inspired the planning for the non-industrial components of institutional support system and commercial economic base.

Figure 5.9: Mumbai Port City Analysis

Transport:

NMMT-Navi Mumbai Municipal Transport Suburban electric trains: local railway lines

• Public taxi/autorickshaw services:

• Waterway services:

Industrial Mix:

LEGEND

Source: MMRDA.

MADOR ROAD URBANISABLE ZONE - G1 URBANISABLE ZONE + G2 INDUSTRIAL ZONE - I FOREST ZONE + F GREEN ZONE + G1 GREEN ZONE - G2 NATIONAL PARK / SANCTCARY RECREATION & TOURISM ZONE + RTZ QUARRY ZONE + Q AIRPORT AND HARBOUR COASTAL WET LAND WATER BODY PROPERTIES WITH WATERHOUSING FACL. HERITAGE SITE MAJOR ROAD GOTHER ROAD RAIL PROPOSED ROAD PROPOSED RAIL RECREATION CENTRE RAILWAY STATION MMR BOUNDARY LOCAL AUTHORITY BOUNDARY PLANNING AUTHORITY BOUNDARY IRRIGATION COMMAND AREA HILL CONTOUR PROPOSED JETTIES - ABA RIVER PROPOSED AIRPORT LOCATIONS

The strategy to accommodate all the self-contained zones within the Port City region is largely dependent on the geographical and topographical patterns of each port city. However there are some fundamental similarities in the arrangements in their land use pattern, which have been depicted in the following diagram.

Figure 5.10: Suggested Port city Planning Strategy

Source: Various Port city case studies referred.

Port & Industries: Ports bring in a variety of trade and their ancillary activities to the immediate hinterland. Freight handling and industrial activities have inseparable linkages with the port.

The industrial and residential zones generally form two distinct parts of the port cities with industries and manufacturing units clustering together in the area immediately surrounding ports. Within the industrial region, the heavy and the light industries tend to be separated as well with the light industries being set up away from the port but well connected with transport lines. In many situations SEZs come up right around the port to attract industry and form the main urban centre of these port cities. However, shipbuilding and saltpans are economic activities, which come up along the waterfront.

Residential & Support: Port Trust can allow the development of residential building for the employees of the Board, within or outside the limits of port as the board may consider necessary $^{27}$ . Migratory population increases the demand for housing in the port vicinity, which creates a large portion of the land use share to be residential and commercial activities.

Residences are generally planned in the port hinterland with strong connectivity. Along with residences, planned educational/institutional and commercial areas come up with a view to cater the urban population. Here it is important to note that the commercial and institutional developments are as a complimentary requirement of the thrust economic sectors and thus need to be integrated with the port & industries.

$^{27}$ Major Port Trust Act, 1963.

$^{28}$ Ibid.
$^{29}$ Ibid.

To avoid stagnation of port city growth, alternative avenues and economic opportunities shall be adopted as key strategy taking advantage of the agglomeration economy and access to basic logistics, like transport, power and water. Institutional infrastructure base provides skilled and semi-skilled labour as per the demand and as a consequence, share of institutional requirement in port cities is slightly on the higher side. With higher end services being provided, an institutional framework is established that provides a highly educated and motivated workforce.

Transportation: There would be two aspects for the development of transport infrastructure in port cities. Firstly, the aspect of infrastructure development is the establishment of interstate rail lines and airports that are created to accommodate the easy movement of cargo as the capability of port increase with the setting up of more industries.

Second is development of a public transport network, which in most cases consists of rail lines as well as mass rapid transit service. This comes up to cater the movement of the residential population to the commercial and industrial zones and forms the backbone of the expansion and growth of the city. Also, the areas around these Transport Corridors gain in land values and various kinds of mixed use developments develop around it including commercial, institutional, theme developments, investment areas, and hospitality and tourism activities amongst others.

A seamless transport infrastructure network should be developed throughout port trust and local authority area. Works for roads, railways, bridges, and tunnels can be executed within or without the limits of the port by the sanction of the Board of Trustees. $^{28}$

Environment and Sustainability: Marine ecosystems of the coast are very rich in species diversity and abundance. It is seen in many of the port cities across the world that once industry and residence has been established, port cities set up environmental reserves and forest regions and fish culture areas begin focussing on sustainable development even attracting tourism. Economic activities requiring water front and conservation of this front under coastal regulation zones have a combating demand for the sensitive land. However, port trusts have power to carry out the activities like reclaiming, excavating, enclosing, and raising any part of the foreshore of the port or port approaches to carry the port activities properly. $^{29}$

This zone can be regulated through provision of buffers and protected areas surrounded with compatible land uses of recreational, institutional and sparse residential areas. Recreational zone can be developed with beaches, creek development, parks, street shopping etc. to accommodate urban leisure activities by carefully integrating the sea edge with the city by well-developed pedestrian paths.

Quality of life: As more workers begin to settle, an urban, cosmopolitan environment is generated which attracts the commercial and service sectors to these port as well as recreational areas. The development of these service sectors attracts a different population of workers, service providers, henceforth emphasising on the need of educational facilities with technical institutes.

For interaction of the various classes of the society, the living and recreational areas are to be integrated and hence the open spaces and amenities to be decentralised and inclusively planned for public integration. Here, social infrastructure can target needs of specific strata of population to ensure improved quality of life and eventually social security.

Maritime boards of the country in respective States are making effort to plan these cities as multi-functional and sustainable. The idea is to provide for infrastructure to attract & accommodate urban population and to regulate development in and around these ports.

Table 5.8 summarises the land use structure for a typical port city

Source: Modified based on the Proposed Land use Structure for Urban Centers and analysis of various case studies, including Singapore, Shanghai, Los Angeles, Vishakhapatnam, Chennai, Mumbai, Surat, Rotterdam etc.

Note: The above land use distribution is indicative and including green, open spaces, water front activities area, but excluding CRZ areas and non-developable areas.

1. Planning of the port and its surrounding area to be based on the harbour structure, port infrastructure, cargo capacity, facilities including jetties & wharfs, Godown facilities and on the understanding of its backward& forward linkages of the commodities of import and export. The following port supporting infrastructure could be considered in a port city as per requirement:

i. Encourage logistics infrastructure development by private or by the ULBs to generate revenue. Logistics as a backward linkage benefits from port &other industries and generates direct and indirect employment.

ii. Separate rail lines and cargo/freight handling junctions to be situated along the port and its industries.

iii. Aerodrome, if existing, can be extended to commercial operations as well.

iv. During planning, provision for pipelines infrastructure in and around port city to be given attention

v. Innovative and feasible alternatives of water supply infrastructure, using techniques such as desalination, reverse osmosis to be considered.

vi. Appropriate disposal system for industrial effluents, sewerage and solid waste.

vii. Area identification for Cyclone Shelters in view of cyclone proneness and Hazard Line demarcation.

2. Sectors with focus on local raw material available from the natural resource base have due advantage to bring benefit to the local economy. The areas marked as high cropping intensity should be left as green/agriculture. Also, Ship building industry to be allowed/considered along the coastal front.

3. Institutional development is complementary and key support to port city industrial development for sectors such as port & logistics. Skilled labour is required and crucial in light engineering for technical inputs. Similarly semi-skilled manpower is prime logistics requirement. Development centres for skilled and semi-skill labour shall be developed as a part of institutional facility. Office spaces and Information Technology is a support system required for high end and value addition in the entire industrial zone. Besides this, Marine mining & biotechnology may benefit from research & development. R& D can be diverted to add value to agriculture, pharmaceuticals etc. also.

4. The National Environmental Policy, 2006 suggests actions to conserve coastal resources - explicitly consider sea-level rise and vulnerability of coastal areas to climate change and geological events, in coastal management plans, as well as infrastructure planning and construction norms.

- Adopt a comprehensive approach to Integrated Coastal Management by addressing linkages between coastal areas, wetlands, and river systems, in relevant policies, regulation, and programs.

- Environment risks and mitigation plan to be taken into consideration while planning the port city development.

- Sustainability of the port is reflected from its planning as per local weather conditions and for Ecologically Sensitive Areas & Protected areas such as CRZ, Marine National park and sanctuaries, specifically taking into consideration the climate change.

- Port city design is generally in grid formation. This is due to alignment with the wind flow directions in the coastal areas as sea breezes and helps to reduce pressure of cyclonic winds, apart from the influence of mangroves on the cyclone.

5. In case of older cities where ports were set up many years ago, the aim is to attain sustainable growth of the city by decongesting city centres while at the same time allowing greater growth in the commercial and industrial sectors by connecting these cities to smaller towns, suburbs and decentralized hubs of activity.

Apart from coastal ports, India also has Dry ports- Inland Container Depots (ICD) and Container freight Stations (CFS) are alternatively called Dry Ports. ICD and CFS provide warehousing space, temporary storage and handling equipment for import and export load, as well as empty containers. Rail network should be provided for strong connectivity between the port cities and dry ports.

Integrated Township can be defined as clusters of planned housing and commercial businesses with associated infrastructure such as roads, schools, hospitals, convenience shopping, water treatment plants and drainage & sewage facilities. Integrated townships majorly emphasise on creating self-contained settlements with work-live-play concept by integrating selected economic activities in manufacturing/service/business categories.

Integrated townships have more open areas with suitable economic size capable of supporting businesses and homes, with adequate physical and social infrastructure. Yet, these should be compact enough to enable high quality living environments where it is possible to walk-to-work / school or take public transport for other activities. Such townships are expected to offer the same or more comforts and facilities as available in main city. Over that, it provides relief from congestion and traffic bottlenecks.

Strategically, integrated townships should be designed to have zero impact in terms of waste management and be adequately self-sufficient in terms of facilities for education, health and other aspects of social welfare. Therefore, for sustainable infrastructure and continued operation and maintenance, new service sectors such as facilities management and integrated waste management shall be promoted in Integrated Townships.

States like Maharashtra and Rajasthan have policy (township policy) under which new townships are being developed by private developers within the city limits on Urbanisable land under the Development plan/ Master plan of the city. The minimum area of such townships is 100 acres in Maharashtra and 10 hectares in Rajasthan.

Government of India has permitted Foreign Direct Investment up to 100% for development of integrated townships including housing, commercial premises, hotels, resorts, city and regional level urban infrastructure facilities such as roads and bridges, mass rapid transit systems and manufacture of building materials. Development of land and providing allied infrastructure will form an integrated part of township's development.$^{30}$ Many States in India, following initiatives by Maharashtra and Rajasthan, have made attempt to prepare policies or schemes for the development of integrated townships. The brief based on study of relevant policy/schemes of three States' is being presented below.

$^{30}$ Guidelines for FDI in Development of Integrated Township, DIPP Press Note, 2002.

5.5.6.1 State Integrated Township Policies

To provide a framework for the development of townships and to regulate the functions of the participants in such developments, the Government should formulate an Integrated Township policy / scheme, as has been done by the Governments of Gujarat $^{31}$ , Himachal Pradesh $^{32}$ , Rajasthan $^{33}$ and Uttar Pradesh $^{34}$ . Such policies institutionalise the role of the state government, developers and other state level agencies in the process of developing Integrated Townships.

Provision for affordable housing is a critical provision in the context of sustainable development. Affordable housing implies that the cost of the housing should be affordable to the disposal income of low income group, EWS and the poor. The cost of housing has two major components- land and construction of houses. Invariably in large cities land cost undesirably is boosted making housing cost unaffordable for the majority. Therefore, the critical policy in planning has to relate to adequate supply of land, commensurate to the needs of the majority, not for demand of the minority. This requires strong policy interventions to control rise of land price, speculation and more importantly to increase supply of land for buildings in the market. Some State initiatives have made efforts in policy and planning and prevention in order to affordable housing and this involves enacting regulations of reservation in housing supply for EWS and the poor.

Case Study: Affordable Housing Norms, Rajasthan

Sustainable human development cannot be achieved without adequate & affordable housing to the vulnerable population residing in the ever-growing urban settlements currently. Affordable shelter for the masses or creation of productive and responsive housing is a complex amalgam of a host of factors, which need to be tackled at all levels and in a synchronized manner. Department of Urban Development, Housing and Local Self Government, Government of Rajasthan has developed Affordable Housing Policy, 2009 after studying and dovetailing various housing schemes of Government of India. With the help of the policy framework and the in-built incentives it is aimed to motivate various agencies, including private developers to take up construction of affordable housing for EWS/LIG categories in various urban centres of Rajasthan. Under the said Policy, five models for developing Affordable Housing have been advanced.

Model No-1: Mandatory Provisions

Source: Affordable Housing Policy, 2009, Rajasthan Government

Model No-2: Private developers on land owned by them

■ Developers to take up construction of EWS/LIG flats on minimum 40% of the total land.

The built up EWS/LIG flats to be handed over to Avas Vikas Limited at pre-determined prices.

Several incentives are offered like double of the normal FAR, TDR facility, waiver of EDC, Building plan approval fee, conversion charges, 10% of the total land allowed for commercial use, fast track approval

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Model No-3: Private developers on acquired land

The land would be made available to the developer on payment of compensation (Land Acquisition cost + 10% Administration charges). All other parameters as per Model No. 2.

Model No-4: Private developers on Government land

Earmarked Government land to be offered free of cost to the developer selected through an open bidding process. The developer offering the maximum number of EWS/LIG flats free of cost to the ULB would be awarded the project. At least 50% houses should be of EWS category.

The developer shall be free to use the remaining land as per his choice for residential purpose with 10% for commercial use. All other parameters as per Model No. 2.

Model No-5: Slum Housing

The model is based on various schemes approved by Government of India and also on the lines of "Mumbai Model" of slum redevelopment with private sector participation.

The Policy document also provides for the tentative land use breakup, ground coverage, time period for finishing project, additional FAR and Use of TDR as a result of additional FAR.

Integrated Townships developing in the periphery of cities lead to formation of enclaves once city grows and once peripheral area is accommodated in city planning area. These enclaves can be assimilated with the city character and structure by realising needs of the main city, promoting required activities in the townships and developing policies to accommodate needs of development.