Chapter 1Introduction

1.1 Urbanisation Trends

Globally, the more urbanised countries have higher levels of income and prosperity. Indian States also exhibit the same trend. At the same time, urbanisation is also perceived to be correlated with pollution, congestion and inferior quality of life. This would call for developing a paradigm of urban development that would bring in higher levels of prosperity, but without the concomitant negative effects. The URDPFI has attempted to develop such a framework.

Population trends: The Census 2011 and 2001 give useful indicators for the trends in urbanisation in India. The three urban agglomerations, viz. Greater Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata, have crossed the 10 million mark in population, but with much reduced the rate of growth. The Million Plus population cities have shown a growth of over 48 per cent, but the number of such cities has gone up from 35 to 53 and five cities viz. Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Pune have attained more than 50 lakh population. The total population in Class I cities (1 lakh +) constitutes 70% of the total urban population, while the total population of million plus cities constitute 42.6% of the total urban population. What is more interesting is that the cities with lower orders of population have exhibited higher rates of growth of population. Table-1.1 gives the details:

Table-1.1: Trends in Urbanisation- 2001 to 2011

Source: Census of India.

The decadal growth rate of the population has, however, shown a slowed down rate declining from 21.5% during 1991-2001 to 17.6% during 2001-2011. The growth rate of urban population also seems to be heading for stabilization as the decadal variation remained around 31.5% during the last two decades.

Non-statutory towns: The trend of urbanisation is reflected remarkably in the size of towns that carry the growing urban population. As per Census-2011, there are 7935 towns including 4041 Statutory towns and 3894 Census towns. However, it is notable that the number of statutory cities has increased marginally, by 6.4 per cent only, whereas the number of non-statutory towns has gone up by 186 per cent. Obviously, new towns are developing very fast, but, being not notified as a town these are kept out of the purview of planned spatial development and become prone to haphazard growth. This would call for a serious effort to introduce the principles of the URDPFI Guidelines to even non-statutory towns, preferably in a regional set up, wherein the spatial plans for such towns are prepared in conjunction with that of the main cities, to which these are generally the satellites.

The framework for effective Spatial Planning needs to incorporate certain major issues, which, subject to local variations, can be listed and categorised as follows:

- Current principles, practises and issues in preparation and implementation of plans at National, Regional and local levels so as to harmonise the same drawing on the best practices.

■ Analysis of the latest trend in the Urban Development scenario.

- Address relevant issues related to peri-urban areas and urban planning regions.

■ Compilation and analysis of the relevant data available from Census and other sources.

■ Urban development issues, especially in newly formed states and backward areas.

- Need for planning system uniformity in the country.

■ Streamlining of planning practices.

■ Requirement of coordinated working between Departments/ Authorities.

■ Legal, funding and decision making aspects in implementation of plans and projects.

- Promoting rapid urbanisation and responding to the impact of climate change.

■ Economic aspects of plan implementation while preparing land use development plans.

Inclusive planning, people's participation and specific issues relating to the elderly, the women, the differently abled and the weaker sections of society.

■ Attention to Transit Oriented Development (TOD).

- Planning for and integration of Peri-urban areas in the planning process.

■ Influence of industrial areas, such as SEZs, on spatial and urban development.

■ CRZ policy and Coastal management in case of coastal cities.

■ Special issues in the urban development in hill areas.

■ Provisions for Affordable housing.

■ Safe disposal, mainly by way of recycling and reuse, of solid and other wastes.

■ Adoption of geo-spatial data and technology in the planning process.

■ Defining measureable benchmarks and milestones for the plan.

- Arrangements for periodic monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of the Plan.

■ Integration of sector specific plans among each other and in overall spatial planning.

The last mentioned issue has become particularly significant over the years, as different Ministries advocate preparation of plans for specific sectors, such as Slum Redevelopment Plan, City Development Plan, City Investment Plan, Comprehensive Mobility Plan, City Sanitation Plan, District Credit Plan, Coastal Zone Management Plan, Environmental Conservation Plan, Riverfront Development Plan, Heritage Conservation Plan, Tourism Master Plan, etc. It would be of great help to all if the Master Plan of the City/ Region incorporates the relevant features of all such sector specific plan. Also, the sector specific plans need to align with the framework of the overall Master Plan.

The classification of urban settlements adopted by the Census of India 2011 is as follows:

1. All places with a Municipality, Corporation, Cantonment Board or notified town area committee, etc.

2. All other places which satisfies the following criteria:

a. A minimum population of 5,000;

b. At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and

c. A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

The first category of urban units is known as Statutory Towns. These towns are notified under law by the concerned State/UT Government and have local bodies like Municipal Corporations, municipalities, municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their demographic characteristics as reckoned on 31st December 2009. The second category of Towns is known as Census Town. Population trends in respect of statutory towns and census towns are indicated in Table- 1.1.

The human settlement classification for planning purposes, its nomenclature and population range is redefined in the URDPFI guidelines based on:

■ Census 2011 and reference to census towns.

■ Master plan formulation in the states.

■ Emerging agglomerations in India.

The classification of urban settlements adopted for URDPFI is indicated in Table- 1.2.

Table- 1.2: Classification of Urban Settlements

Source: Modifications for the UDPFI Guidelines based on census classification and State experiences.

* Any urban centres even having less than 5,000 population may be given a statutory status and be called as a Statutory Town and Census of India follows 6-fold classification as per the population size

Small towns can be referred as ‘transitional towns’ mentioned in the 74 $^{th}$ CAA where a Nagar Panchayat (as a municipality) is to be formed for an area in transition from a rural area to an urban area.

Agglomeration of urban nodes along with its peri-urban and rural areas are currently observed in the Metropolitan cities II (like in Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad) and in Megapolis. However, ‘Conurbation’ of settlements is on much larger scale, which may develop accounting for population more than 5 crore and with adjoining several large cities and few metropolitan cities.

The URDPFI Guidelines focus on the statutory towns. However, the concepts stated in these Guidelines can be easily made applicable to all human settlements, whether notified as a municipality, cantonment, special economic zone, port trust area or even a village.

Literature review on the planning systems in India and abroad indicates that each country/territory has evolved its own system suiting specific needs, traditions and legal arrangements. The recommended urban development planning systems in the guidelines have, therefore, taken into account such variations.

The recommended planning system is to consider various plans, both statutory and non-statutory, to be a part of the system. These various plans such as urban revitalisation plan, city development plan, comprehensive mobility plan, city sanitation plan, coastal zone management plan etc. have emerged due to the planning needs and/or funding schemes/programmes. Similarly, regional plan, which is to cover a larger land area, is included in the system across the scale of planning.

The Table- 1.3 below, which has been designed based on stakeholder consultations, suggests the planning system framework on the basis of -

■ Hierarchy

■ Spatial extent

■ Scale of planning

■ Details provided in the plan

■ Function and their speciality

Table- 1.1: Planning System Framework

The need & roles for the specific plan category, namely, Perspective Plan, Regional Plan, Development Plan, Master Plan, Local Area Plan, Special Purpose Plan and Annual Plan, thereby resolving gaps in the planning system is detailed in the following section.

1.5.1 Perspective Plan

Developing a vision for region is essential for policy framework. The vision stipulates direction of growth and identification of resource potential and innovations to be adopted for the thrust areas of development. It integrates broad level plan with the regional or development plan. A realistic vision helps policy formulation and preparation of perspective plan.

Perspective plan defines the vision and focuses on the spatio-economic development policies, strategies and programmes towards the intended development of the State. The Perspective Plan of a State could include - State Urbanisation Policy and State Land Utilisation Policy. The plan is based on state resource mapping and analysis and assessment of potential resources. It addresses the long term policies regarding development of infrastructure and resource mobilisation. The scope of this plan covers the social, economic and spatial development goals, policies and priorities relating to the activities that have spatial and financial implications.

The purpose of a perspective plan is to provide an overall framework for preparation of detailed plans. Therefore it serves as a guide for urban local authorities and regional development authorities in preparation of the regional and development plans.

For planned and sustainable development of the human settlements, the regional planning approach needs to be promoted. The planning regions could be classified under three heads: (a) Administrative Regions, which can be District Regions or Metropolitan Regions as per the recommendations of the 73 $^{rd}$ & 74 $^{th}$ Constitutional Amendment Act, (b) Investment Regions, which can be new investment manufacturing zones, industrial and freight corridors, special investment regions etc. They could be identified under National Acts/ policies, (c) Special regions, which are sensitive in terms of environment/ socio economic or political aspects.

States undertake Urban and Regional Planning under a variety of statutes such as the Town and Country Planning Act, Municipal Laws, Urban/Metropolitan Planning/ Development Act, Improvement Trust Act, Industrial Development

Act, Cantonment Board Act, Major Ports Act etc. Often these laws are mutually exclusive. For instance, a Master Plan for a city would exclude the lands covered under the Industrial Development Act, even though the lands would be adjacent and the movement of the people and of the economic activities may be seamless. This leads to suboptimal planning for land use as well as for infrastructure. It is, therefore, suggested that the principles for spatial planning recommended by these guidelines are extended to all areas, whether administered by the regular administrative system of the State Government or by special laws such as for the ports, cantonments, railways, industrial zones etc. Furthermore, the concepts of regional planning enunciated in these guidelines should be extended to all contiguous areas that are socially, economically or functionally inter-dependent. For instance, a civilian town and the adjoining port/ cantonment/railway area should be covered by an umbrella regional plan, even though the actual authority for administration of the individual piece of land would continue to vest with the respective organisation, such as the Port Trust, Cantonment Board, Railway Administration, etc. At times, even certain infrastructure could be planned and developed in a regional set up. For instance, the road network/ mobility plan, or the drainage plan could more efficiently be executed in a regional set up, rather than limiting to the jurisdiction of the statutory authorities administering their respective lands.

This would also call for notification of regional planning authorities, for regions that have contours defined by seamless connectivity of people and economic activities. Typically, a town in the vicinity of a industrial zone (SEZ etc.) should become the node for notification of a Regional Planning Authority (RPA), wherein the region would be defined to include the town, the nearby SEZ and the adjoining villages. Similarly, a Port Area and it adjoining city and villages should put together be notified as a Region, with a RPA duly notified to prepare a regional plan and coordinate/ oversee the implementation of the regional plan. Such RPA may be chaired by a senior officer, such as the District Collector or could even have a full-time officer. Senior representatives of the various authorities administering the constituent areas (ports, villages, cantonment, SEZ etc.) should be represented on the executive body of the RPA.

Similar RPAs may be notified for tourist areas, religious places and the influence zones of the transit corridors such as national/ state highways, expressways, and waterways. Areas including and surrounding the airports may also be similarly notified for planned regional development. It would also be desirable to regularly monitor the contours of such RPAs and expand the same, as per need. The State Town & Country Planning Acts may be suitably modified to enable formation of such authorities. Till such time such statutory arrangements are put in place, the State Government could issue executive orders constituting such

authorities and Ministry of Urban Development could extend necessary support for the purpose, as required.

Regional plan is to be a comprehensive plan at an appropriate scale (district/inter-district, investment region or special area) for the integration of urban nodes with the semi-urban and rural areas. The plan is based on understanding of the characteristics of the region such as flow of people, goods, knowledge and money.

Some states have comprehensive town and country planning legislation, which provides for urban planning and development in a regional perspective beyond the city limits and coordinated with the overall framework of economic development, priorities and resource availabilities. Regions, identified in the States, are to be planned holistically or as sub-regions for the holistic approach of planning.

The detailed planning of the urban nodes will be addressed by the development plans at the next stage of planning, while the requirements of the region will be addressed by the regional plan to bring out policies for development and bringing in harmony between the different types of human settlements. Regional plan focuses on balanced development and plan for hierarchy of settlements, both urban and rural (in terms of its geographical area coverage), hierarchy of connectivity network, road, rail, sea and airports and intermodal transport hubs, focuses on land utilisation, resource mobilisation, environmental protection and disaster risk management.

Development plan is a statutory plan prepared (under relevant Act) within the framework of an approved perspective plan. The objective of a development plan is to provide further necessary details and intended actions in the form of strategies and physical proposals for various policies given in the perspective plan and regional plan depending upon the economic and social needs and aspiration of the people, available resources and priorities.

Proposals of a development plan should be definite, supported by an implementation strategy and evaluation criteria. It makes known publicly the intention of the local authority regarding physical, social and economic development, the facilities and the services that are proposed to be provided in the near future. The approved development plan allows the local authority to implement development of the land area specified under the plan with the help of local area plans and projects.

The time frame of the existing Development Plans is for a period of 20 years by most of the urban development authorities/ ULB. For greenfield cities, a longer planning period can be considered, aligned with the infrastructure life of 30 years.

These plans should be in phases of 5 years, to make it convenient for periodic reviews and revision. This 5-year cycle could also be usefully coincided with the State Five Year plans and State Finance Commissions' recommendations, though such an alignment need not be made mandatory. The targets set for each phase can be assessed as the mid-term review against the achievements at the end of each phase. For Greenfield area, phasing could include a 'Zero' period for approvals, institutional set-up, initial land polling and revisiting any strategy.

1.5.3.1 Master Plan to be referred as Development plan

The term “Development Plan” is used differently in States. Some States use it for an integrated multi-sector plan, such as the District Development Plan. In some other States, it is a statutory land use plan, approved and adopted by the local authority and its proposals are precise and definite, notifying the property owners the manner in which their properties will be affected. The examples of the later type are the Delhi Master Plan, Chennai Master Plan, Guwahati Master Plan, Ahmedabad Development Plan, Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Plan and Bhopal Development Plan. Here, both the plans, Development plans and Master plans have the same functions and impose similar controls, with variation in the use of nomenclatures by States. Many states prefer and there is a growing consensus to replace the terminology of ‘Master Plan’ with ‘Development Plan’.

In areas under the Schedule 6 of the Constitution, land is not directly State subject such as in the north-eastern (NE) States, where land title is based on community ownership. The approach to land aspects of the Development Plan may be different in such cases. Therefore, a Structure Plan approach to land management may be appropriate in order to allocate land for different land uses in urban infrastructure etc.

In such cases or otherwise, Structure Plan is to serve as a planning tool which directs the growth and zones of planning, but is not as precise as the development plan (such as the Structure Plan for Bangalore Metropolitan Region). Structure Plans may be considered as an overarching Development plan for Metropolitan Regions, allowing broad framework and flexibility.

The thrust of micro-planning should shift to local area plans, which could encourage decentralisation and improve implementation of Development Plans. In view of the 73 $^{rd}$ and 74 $^{th}$ CAA, planning decision and implementation of plans should be disaggregated in order to bring the process closer to the local people. This would enhance the significance of Local Area Plans.

Local area plans are to be prepared to guide the development or re-development of land, conservation of buildings and physical features, providing improvements in the physical layout, making infrastructure and amenities available and

managing the area to enhance health and safety of the residents to support economic development as well as to enhance the quality of living, environment, and for area specific regulatory parameters $^{iii}$ (see endnote) for the area covered.

Local area plans need to specify the implementation details to comply with the Government Policies, such as housing, hi-tech townships, rainwater harvesting, energy, disaster management, industrial and service sector investment, barrier-free environment for the elderly and the physically disabled, e-Governance, tourism and other policies and facilitate formulation of specific projects.

The plan should delineate reservation of land for roads and other public purposes, for construction, reclamation etc. The plan should provide a framework for recovery of the associated costs for public projects, by mechanisms like levy of betterment charges, charges on additional development rights, and appropriate user charges.

Special Purpose Plan can be prepared for specific development sectors depending on its economic and environmental importance. Depending on the urgency of the need and priority of the sector requiring special treatment and covering special aerial extent, Special Purpose Plans for specific subjects can be prepared. However, these plans are to be within the framework of the Regional Plan, Development Plan or Local Area Plan in the jurisdiction of the local authority.

These plans may also emerge to serve the purpose of urban planning needs under different Central and State Government grants, funding schemes $^{iii}$ (see endnote) / programmes with an aim to:

■ Encourage reforms and fast track planned development of cities, peri-urban areas, out-growths, urban corridors, and others,

■ Scale-up delivery of civic amenities and provision of utilities with emphasis on universal access to the urban poor,

■ Special focus on urban renewal programme,

■ Supplement to budget documents on ULBs,

■ Sustainability, Environmental and heritage protection,

■ Theme based development such as tourism, IT etc.

An Annual Plan would contain the details of the new and ongoing projects that the local authority intends to implement during each financial year for necessary financial resource mobilisation and monitoring its performance.

The annual plan is to be prepared by the local authority in each financial year to identify the new projects, which the authority will undertake for implementation during the year, taking into account the physical and fiscal performance of the preceding year, the priorities, the policies and proposals contained in the approved Regional Plan, Development Plan or Local Area Plan.

The annual plan is intended to provide the resource requirement during the year and sources of funds including those mobilised by the local authority, grants, aids and project/scheme funds by the State and Central Governments.

It is thus an important document for the resource mobilisation as on the basis of this, the plan funds are to be allocated by the funding body. This plan, therefore, serves as an important link with the budgetary process. Annual plans also provide a mechanism to monitor progress of development plan and various projects.

Projects are derived targets of the sequences of plans, which focus on items of execution, investments, costing and returns. Conceived within the framework of the perspective plan, development plan or any of the plans in the planning system, projects are the working layouts with all supporting infrastructure and documents including cost, source of fund and recovery providing all necessary details for execution including finance, development, administrative and management.

These projects could be for any area, old or new, any activity or land use like residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, educational or health related, or infrastructure development, separately or in an integrated manner; for research and development in the field of planning, key surveys to determine statistics, by any agency such as government, semi-government, private or even individual; or any agency prepared by town planners, architects, engineers as the case may be, enjoying maximum freedom of expression in their design within the stipulations of development promotion rules and other regulations as applicable. Research, specifically for background studies preceding Perspective Plan, Regional Plan, Development Plan or even Local Area Plan formulation may be undertaken as required by the State Government and local authorities. Specifically, traffic surveys & related studies to collect current statistics are crucial for making decisions in plan formulation.

(Details on the contents of the plans suggested above in the planning system are given subsequently in Chapter 2 on Plan Formulation.)

Taking into account the entire planning process and also incorporating the suggested planning system, Figure-1.1 shows the inter-relationship of the

different plans, directly or indirectly related to the land development, at various levels ranging from national to a transitional urban area.

A Perspective Plan is formulation of development strategy generally at the State level or at the regional level. This is detailed further in Regional Plan or Sub Regional Plan as the case may be and in Development Plan. Perspective Plan should be a guiding document for planning. It could also specify the regional planning authorities, urban/local area planning authorities, regulatory authorities in the State and those responsible for preparing plan at various levels. The State Urbanisation Plan shall give a stock of the urbanisation, planning status and especially of the land suitability.

Regional Plans are to be prepared at district and metropolitan region level, and where economic regions are formulated. This is the linkage for aggregation of plan proposals for consolidation and integration of physical and fiscal planning efforts at District, Metropolitan area, State and also at National level (in case of inter-state regions). As Figure-1.1 depicts, integration and disaggregation of policies, resources in the planning system occurs at the level of Regional and Development Plan.

Figure- 1.1: Relationship of the Planning System

Development Plan and Mobility Plan need to be integrated to ensure transportation oriented spatial planning. It needs to be emphasised here that urban plans should not be considered in isolation from its region as each urban centre is part of a regional system of the settlement which in turn play their respective roles in the process of development of the region as a whole. The Development Plan shall provide policies and development proposals, which are detailed in the local area plan to a greater scale. This interrelationship between planning system is the key to implementation; hence Development Plan and Local Area Plan should be prepared in close coordination.

However, areas that require special plan within the framework of the development plan or planning for specific purpose should be prepared only when the need arrives. The funding schemes, such as JnNURM, RAY, have significant role in the new planning system, where City Development Plan, Comprehensive Mobility Plan, City Sanitation Plan, Slum Redevelopment Plan, Disaster Management Plan are to be formulated. Among all, Comprehensive Mobility Plan should be prepared along with the Development Plan, while City Sanitation Plan, City Development Plan should be prepared in line with the Development plan.

Project reports and Annual plans are necessary requirements of the planning system. These are directly interrelated with each other and are vertical with the entire planning system. Implementation of all intended developments is linked to this stage and hence these can be prepared following any of the above mentioned stages.

The urban and regional plans, in all its forms and dimensions, should focus on sustainability, from financial, social, governance/ managerial and environmental. Financial sustainability is to be achieved by working out the details of the capital and operational costs and the options to recover the same adequately. Each development project enhances the economic stature of the influence zone and, accordingly, the development activities in such influence zone should be subject to development charges, computed to recover the capex over the project lifecycle. Similarly, the user charges should pay for the operational expenses. In determining such charges, cross subsidies could be provided for.

Social sustainability relates to inclusion, i.e., the project should provide benefit to all residents in the influence zone equitably. It should also be based on identification of the gainers and losers from the project and to ensure that the gainers are subject to development and other charges that could be passed on in an appropriate form to the losers.

Governance/ managerial sustainability would require the project to meet all the statutory and regulatory requirements and also to have adequate capacities developed with the local authorities concerned for maintaining the project effectively and efficiently throughout the project lifecycle at reasonable costs.

Environmental sustainability would require, for instance, zero land-fill for solid waste management projects. In fact, each project should aim at improvement in the environment, rather than on ‘minimising the damage’.

The sustainability issues have been highlighted in numerous policy documents including the Twelfth Five Year Plan, which recommends for strengthening urban governance structure/ Local Bodies, augmenting the soft infrastructure including system capacities, inclusive governance, environmental sustainability

and enhanced attention to urban renewal as well as to regional approach to planning. These frameworks have been further detailed in the National Mission for Sustainable Habitat.

State Land Utilisation Policy would need to be defined at the Perspective Plan Level, which should be as per the guiding framework of National Land Utilisation Policy, 2013 (draft version is currently in place), brought out by the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, for different states keeping in context the state-specific needs, potential, priorities and legal provisions.

The (draft) National Land Utilisation Policy, 2013 takes into consideration the predominant (existing or scientifically established) functions of land serving the needs of people, environment as well as different sectors of economy and development. Also, the Policy takes into consideration the existing laws and approaches that govern land uses. It suggests that the land in the country be divided into Land Utilisation Zones $^{1}$ (LUZs) based on the predominant use of those lands. Here, each state should formulate the strategy of land development in a spatial concept plan. The following six types of LUZs are indicated:

1. Predominantly Rural and Agricultural Areas;

2. Areas Under Transformation;

3. Predominantly Urban Areas;

4. Predominantly Industrial Areas;

5. Predominantly Ecological Areas, Landscape Conservation & Tourism Areas, Heritage Areas $^{1}$ ;

6. Major Hazard Vulnerable Areas.

It may be desirable to further classify areas under the ‘Predominantly Urban Areas’ LUZ, where urban development is to be promoted, to be restricted/controlled or to be prohibited, as per the situation.

The perspective of the State, the state resource mapping and LUZs would set the foundation of the long-term policies regarding development of infrastructure and resource mobilisation for the land use plan.

In the past decades, urban sprawl has resulted into loss of high quality agricultural land and open space, fragmentation of ecosystems, spatially segregated uses inducing high dependency on private vehicle use and unfavourable conditions for public transport. National Urban Transport Policy

$^{1}$ LUZ to be considered for eco-tourism, sea and river front natural vegetation areas and protected forests.

(NUTP), 2006 has highlighted the need for integrating land use and transport planning. Land transport integration benefits in making investment decisions in transport infrastructure and services, which in turn are linked to economic, social, and environmental outcomes. It also helps in determining the optimal use of land in the influence zones of the transit corridors. Land transport integration would involve two mutually supportive processes:

- Organizing the physical form and land use pattern of a city such that the travel demands, trip lengths and travel times are minimized, while accessibility, comfort and efficiency are maximized.

- Organizing all systems of transportation from pedestrian pathways to mass transit systems such that they integrate well with each other and enable the harmonious establishment of land use around them, in the process generating a city form that is sustainable$^{2}$.

Conventional development plans for Indian cities have a statutory requirement to plan land uses and channelize growth, whereas transportation plans are not statutory and work with the mandate of arriving at regional and local level projects for improving mobility. Thus, URDPFI guideline suggests the shift from such an approach to explicitly regarding interactions between various land uses/activity subsystems and transportation. Therefore, Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs), first mooted under the JnNURM, are to be integrated with all development plans bridging the transportation projects and statutory land use planning.$^{3}$

Transport networks are among the most permanent element of cities, which change very slowly over decades or centuries. While, buildings are the second most permanent element of cities, with lifetime of hundreds of years, but can be adapted to changes through refurbishment but the integration of the two shapes the urban form of a settlement.

The integration of land use with transport systems is called “Transit Oriented Development”, which is essentially “any development, macro or micro that is focused around a transit node, and facilitates complete ease of access to the transit facility thereby inducing people to prefer to walk and use public transportation over personal modes of transport” $^{4}$ . This entails planning for compact cities and reducing urban sprawl and dependency on the large scale developments in the periphery which induce shift from non-motorized to

$^{2}$ A framework for this purpose is provided in the Toolkit for Land Use Transport Integration and Density of Urban Growth brought out by the Ministry of Urban Development under the Sustainable Urban Transport Project (2013).

$^{3}$ Ibid.

$^{4}$ Draft UTTIPEC Guidelines, 2012

motorized modes of travel. Approach to TOD highly depends on establishing mixed landuse zone as part of strategic densification. The policy includes:

Network & Connectivity: Disperse high traffic volumes over multiple parallel streets rather than concentrating traffic on few major arterial roads. Create a fine network of streets through urban design that provides choice of routes for all modes, reducing distances between places as well as journey times.

- Last mile connectivity: Provide fast, convenient interchange options and spatial provision for various modes of Intermediate Public Transport (IPT) at Multimodal Transit Station for seamless travel. Provide multiple mode choices for last-mile connectivity at various prices and comfort levels. Also, if possible, eliminate the need of IPT by design and engineering$^{5}$.

- Pedestrian access: Provide the shortest direct route to pedestrians and non-motorised modes to station as well as between building blocks.

- High Density, Mixed-Income Development: Compact neighborhoods for shorter commutes and equity for all sections of society. Mix of compatible use to promote 24 hour activity.

■ Streetscape Design: Urban places should be designed for enjoyment, relaxation and equity. Pedestrian friendly designated space for all activities.

- Promote Place Making to Create a Sense of Place - Focus on promoting liveability, quality and uniqueness of each space

- Direct Business to TOD Locations- Create transit services to regional job centers, focus job creation investments in transit serviced locations

Application of TOD is in context of scales in planning i.e. Regional context, Sub-regional context, city context and area context. It shall require a robust methodology for intervention $^{6}$ and would need to be planned at (a) Regional or Sub-regional level and (b) City or local area planning level.

The context of TOD varies in respect to City Core areas, Peripheral areas and Greenfield areas which are equally important and mutually dependent on densification, redevelopment (in context of City Core areas), mode of public transport and intermediate public transport and therefore uses of land in the influence zone. However, in the setting of brownfield cities where transformation of landuse and built form has experienced continuous change, the Development Oriented Transport (DOT) may be used. DOT incorporates redevelopment or readjustment of transit network mediums as per transformation taking place or has taken place in development. Detailed

$^{5}$ In case of China and Japan

$^{a}$ Working paper on Transit Oriented Development, Embarq, India

approach of identifying TOD influence zone and its planning is covered in chapter 8 and Zone wise TOD matrix is provided in Table-5.3.

Besides, integrated urban development, TOD can benefit as an alternative revenue generation source, from:

Financing of Urban Transport projects by Unlocking Land Values as Higher FSI in influence zone of Transit corridors within the framework of the overall planning guidelines to be prepared by respective states

- Transit Corridors (Metro/ Mono Rail, BRTS, Ring Road) attracting economic activities and leading to induced urban development with less efforts

- Land-use based financing sources along Transport Corridors. For example, periodic revision of property guidance value, higher property tax along transit corridors, impact fees, development charges, conversion charges and betterment charges.

If properly planned and implemented, TOD invariably promotes value added activities including commercial and services.

Statutory landuse plans have implications on the land use and development control mechanism. Despite statutory backing, due to the controlled conventional (rigid) approach, Development plans are not implemented fully and meaningfully. Plan proposal estimates have not kept pace with the growing requirement of cities or the aspirations of the city dwellers.

Development planning approach is to be for a flexible plan formulation for facilitation and promotion of development in plan making and implementation, where changes in landuse are to be permitted only when necessary by specifically appointed empowered body- ‘Urban and Regional Planning & Development Authorities’ (suggested in the institutional reforms section 3.6.1). These changes may be guided by large developments, social interest and need for all. Further, fixation of FAR/FSI, density should be based on more rational grounds and any changes therein must be carefully planned. Preparation of City Investment Plan should facilitate easier implementation of Development plan.

For minor changes in the landuse, the planning system is to be improved to allow flexibility in the development plans/ master plans. Such as allowing mixed use of land in the zoning regulation must consider the RoW of the abutting road for industrial and other (residential and commercial) aspects of mix. Vertical mix of use of land is an alternative approach for promoting flexibility and is suggested in section 5.3.2 & 9.2.

The URDPFI Guidelines suggest the ways to augment financial resources for implementation of the development/ spatial plan through various innovative sources of revenue generation. Formulation of spatial plan should be such that the plan is able to create economic growth and which could fund the implementation of the plan. Among the land development mechanism, town planning schemes followed in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat is a successful case to demonstrate financial sustainability (cost recovery) of the plan.

Many schemes and projects are conceptualised without proper techno-feasibility studies or financial viability assessments and therefore projects and research have been integrated in the planning system now. Consequently, in the Plan, there is not much appreciation of the implications of its standards for capital cost, cost recovery and maintenance by the municipalities and the state agencies. The Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) mainly in the small and medium size towns, without exception, suffer from a very weak resource base. Their per capita income is much less than the level of expenditure, which makes it heavily dependent on external funding instead of its self-generated revenues.

To address such issues, fiscal resource generation from land, tax on vacant land, regulation of unauthorised informal development and underutilisation of permitted FAR could be source of financial resource generation (refer section 3.3), which can be for dedicated urban development through an infrastructure fund. Here, implementing agencies need to treat land as an asset for infrastructure development through capital gain, stamp duty, auction and other mechanisms in consensus of the State Finance Commission.

International agencies working on zero waste have claimed that recycling rates of 75% & plus have been achieved by municipalities large and small throughout the world. The ‘Zero waste’/ ‘Zero Land-fill’ concept is gaining ground as being practicably achievable in Indian cities too. Indian cities have the advantage of significant recycling and reuse in the solid waste management system. Those can be improved and coordinated with the view to moving towards ‘zero waste scenarios’.

Zero land-fill can be achieved by adopting systematic approach of segregation at source by planning, by collection facilitation and most importantly by public awareness. The green waste can be converted into fuel cakes, kitchen waste into manure, construction & demolition waste into bricks, plastic waste into oil, paper, glass and steel back into the same and all residuary inert materials can also be converted into bricks. Achieving zero land-fill is more conveniently

possible, if (a) the collection is made from house to house and some segregation is done at household level and (b) the recycling is done at decentralized, say, ward or even lower levels.

Besides solid waste, the effective management of waste water would result in availability of treated water for reuse, capture of methane gas for power generation and improvement in the quality of the environment. This could also be done in a zero land-fill concept. More details on Sustainable Waste Management, including the norms for waste water and its reuse, are given in Chapter 8.

Development plan / Local area plans in India have not effectively earmarked adequate land and spaces for the urban poor / informal sector for residents or other activities at affordable rate. In new townships and new developments of IT / BPO Townships, Satellite Townships, SEZ, etc., where the space standards are normally affluent, informal sector is significantly gaining recognition. Planning norms for urban street vendors, the marginalised and the informal sector to be adopted and developed from this guideline. It is of utmost importance to protect the interest of urban poor by reserving space, extending legal title (ownership) and above all the Master Plans / Development Plans to take this component into account. Hence, Development Plan should allocate space with serious assessment of the requirements of urban poor after ascertaining the ground realities with regard to location of vendors, informal activities, slums and need for in-situ redevelopment/upgradation. Norms for informal sector and street vendors are given in Chapter 8 and approach to affordable housing is suggested in Chapter 5.

The places of employment for most of the citizens are often located far away from their place of residence, which discourages them from accessing the most suitable employment. While this handicap would be applicable for all sections of the society, it is more significant for the women and other weaker sections, including the elderly and the differently able. The effective solution for this situation lies in the ‘shelter-transport-livelihood link’, which ought to be made a cornerstone for planning. Barrier Free Environment (refer section 8.8) is one way to enable people with disabilities to move about safely and freely and to use the facilities within the built environment $^{7}$ . In addition, to integrate the disabled and elderly persons fully into the society, the social infrastructure norms suggest co-development of old age home and orphanage facilities with appropriate infrastructure to be included in all the plans especially in the Local Area Plans.

$^{7}$ 'Guidelines and space standards for Barrier Free Built Environment for Disabled and Elderly Person', CPWD, Ministry of Urban Development (2013). Also recommended by UN Habitat.